{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T02:01:53Z","timestamp":1792807313845,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]],"date-time":"2022-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658275200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Health (Ministero della Salute)","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00789fa95","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main aim of this study was to describe the clinical and immunological outcomes, as well as the inflammatory profile, of patients with advanced HIV in an assisted-living facility in which an outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 occurred. SARS-CoV-2 humoral and specific T-cell response were analyzed in patients with HIV infection and COVID-19; as a secondary objective of the analysis, levels of the inflammatory markers (IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF\u03b1) were tested in the HIV\/COVID-19 group, in HIV-positive patients without COVID-19, and in HIV-negative patients with mild\/moderate COVID-19. Antibody kinetics and ability to neutralize SARS-CoV-2 were evaluated by ELISA assay, as well as the inflammatory cytokines; SARS-CoV-2 specific T-cell response was quantified by ELISpot assay. Mann\u2013Whitney or Kruskal\u2013Wallis tests were used for comparisons. Thirty patients were included with the following demographics: age, 57 years old (IQR, 53\u201362); 76% male; median HIV duration of infection, 18 years (15\u201329); nadir of CD4, 57\/mmc (23\u2013100) current CD4 count, 348\/mmc (186\u2013565). Furthermore, 83% had at least one comorbidity. The severity of COVID-19 was mild\/moderate, and the overall mortality rate was 10% (3\/30). Additionally, 90% of patients showed positive antibody titers and neutralizing activity, with a 100% positive SARS-CoV-2 specific T-cell response over time, suggesting the ability to induce an effective specific immunity. Significantly higher levels of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-\u03b1 in COVID-19 without HIV vs. HIV\/COVID-19 patients (p &lt; 0.05) were observed. HIV infection did not seem to negatively impact COVID-19-related inflammatory state and immunity. Further data are mandatory to evaluate the persistence of these immunity and its ability to expand after exposure and\/or vaccination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14071575","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,22]],"date-time":"2022-07-22T03:58:44Z","timestamp":1658462324000},"page":"1575","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["SARS-CoV-2 Specific Immune Response and Inflammatory Profile in Advanced HIV-Infected Persons during a COVID-19 Outbreak"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6944-0686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Vergori","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Boschini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Center, San Patrignano Community, 47853 Rimini, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Notari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology Laboratory, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4629-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrizia","family":"Lorenzini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9819-236X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Concetta","family":"Castilletti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases, Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0640-8667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Colavita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases, Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2948-4243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Matusali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases, Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eleonora","family":"Tartaglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology Laboratory, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6351-2623","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Gagliardini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Boschi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Disease Unit, Hospital of Rimini \u201cGli Infermi\u201d, 47923 Rimini, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eleonora","family":"Cimini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology Laboratory, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Maeurer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunotherapy Programme, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"I Medical Clinic, University of Mainz, 55122 Mainz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7342-0263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierluca","family":"Piselli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leila","family":"Angeli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Center, San Patrignano Community, 47853 Rimini, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2121-4684","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Antinori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Health Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5252-0927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Agrati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology Laboratory, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8182-5896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrico","family":"Girardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e314","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(20)30111-9","article-title":"COVID-19 in patients with HIV: Clinical case series","volume":"7","author":"Blanco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-020-01438-z","article-title":"COVID-19 in people living with human immunodeficiency virus: A case series of 33 patients","volume":"48","author":"Spinner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, W., Ming, F., Dong, Y., Zhang, Q., Zhang, X., Mo, P., Feng, Y., and Liang, K. (2021, June 01). A Survey for COVID-19 among HIV\/AIDS Patients in Two Districts of Wuhan, China (3\/4\/2020). Available online: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=3550029.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3550029"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000002423","article-title":"Outcomes among HIV-Positive Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19","volume":"85","author":"Carlucci","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic Syndr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2276","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa579","article-title":"Clinical Features and Outcomes of Patients With Human Immunodeficiency Virus With COVID-19","volume":"71","author":"Gervasoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa635","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes in People Living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Hospitalized for Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"71","author":"Shalev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e554","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(20)30164-8","article-title":"Description of COVID-19 in HIV-infected individuals: A single-centre, prospective cohort","volume":"7","author":"Vizcarra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.10.060","article-title":"COVID-19 in people living with HIV: A multicenter case-series study","volume":"102","author":"Cabello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000002643","article-title":"Clinical characteristics, risk factors, and incidence of symptomatic coronavirus disease 2019 in a large cohort of adults living with HIV: A single-center, prospective observational study","volume":"34","author":"Inciarte","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000002639","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 attack rate in HIV-infected patients and in preexposure prophylaxis users","volume":"34","author":"Charre","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1111\/hiv.12911","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outcomes in HIV\/AIDS patients: A systematic review","volume":"21","author":"Cooper","year":"2020","journal-title":"HIV Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2933","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa880","article-title":"Coronavirus 2019 and People Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Outcomes for Hospitalized Patients in New York City","volume":"71","author":"Sigel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000659","article-title":"The interplay between HIV and COVID-19: Summary of the data and responses to date","volume":"16","author":"Brown","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"ciaa1198","article-title":"Risk factors for COVID-19 death in a population cohort study from the Western Cape Province, South Africa","volume":"29","author":"Boulle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"ciaa1605","article-title":"Outcomes of COVID-19 related hospitalization among people with HIV in the ISARIC WHO Clinical Characterization Protocol (UK): A prospective observational study","volume":"23","author":"Geretti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(20)30305-2","article-title":"HIV infection and COVID-19 death: A population-based cohort analysis of UK primary care data and linked national death registrations within the OpenSAFELY platform","volume":"8","author":"Bhaskaran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2037069","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.37069","article-title":"Elevated COVID-19 outcomes among persons living with diagnosed HIV infection in New York State: Results from a population-level match of HIV, COVID-19, and hospitalization databases","volume":"4","author":"Tesoriero","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1796","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26556","article-title":"COVID-19 in people living with HIV: Clinical implications of dynamics of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"93","author":"Mondi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"HIV\/AIDS Program (2021, June 01). WHO Case Definitions of HIV for Surveillance and Revised Clinical Staging and Immunological Classification of HIV-Related Disease in Adults and Children. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/hiv\/pub\/guidelines\/HIVstaging150307.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2021, June 01). NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines, Available online: https:\/\/www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov\/overview\/clinical-spectrum\/."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matusali, G., Colavita, F., Lapa, D., Meschi, S., Bordi, L., Piselli, P., Gagliardini, R., Corpolongo, A., Nicastri, E., and Antinori, A. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 Serum Neutralization Assay: A Traditional Tool for a Brand-New Virus. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13040655"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2021","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa657","article-title":"Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 and Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Case Series","volume":"71","author":"Childs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000002651","article-title":"HIV infection and COVID-19: Risk factors for severe disease","volume":"34","author":"Etienne","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1111\/hiv.13037","article-title":"Immune-deficiency is a risk factor for severe COVID-19 in people living with HIV","volume":"22","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"HIV Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0401-3","article-title":"Elevated exhaustion levels and reduced functional diversity of T cells in peripheral blood may predict severe progression in COVID-19 patients","volume":"17","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alrubayyi, A., Gea-Mallorqu\u00ed, E., Touizer, E., Hameiri-Bowen, D., Kopycinski, J., Charlton, B., Fisher-Pearson, N., Muir, L., Rosa, A., and Roustan, C. (2021). Characterization of humoral and SARS-CoV-2 specific T cell responses in people living with HIV. bioRxiv, rs.3.rs-309746. Update in Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 5839.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-26137-7"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-407707-2.00002-3","article-title":"Residual immune dysregulation syndrome in treated HIV infection","volume":"119","author":"Lederman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levy, I., Finesod, A.W., Litchevsky, V., Biber, A., Indenbaum, V., Olmer, L., Huppert, A., Mor, O., Goldstein, M., and Levin, E.G. (2021, June 01). Immunogenicity and Safety of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine in People Living with HIV-1. Available online: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=3829650.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3829650"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06028-z","article-title":"Correction to: Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China","volume":"46","author":"Ruan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa380","article-title":"Clinical Outcomes and Immunologic Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in People With Human Immunodeficiency Virus","volume":"223","author":"Ho","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.037","article-title":"The pathogenesis and treatment of the \u2018cytokine storm\u2019 in COVID-19","volume":"80","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuller, L.L., Tracy, R.R., Belloso, W.W., De Wit, S., Drummond, F.F., Lane, C.H., Ledergerber, B., Lundgren, J., Neuhaus, J.J., and Nixon, D.D. (2008). Inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers and mortality in patients with HIV infection. PLoS Med., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050203"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.09.1436","article-title":"SARS-CoV2 infection in 30 HIV-infected patients followed-up in a French University Hospital","volume":"101","author":"Isernia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.10.049","article-title":"HIV\/SARS-CoV-2 co-infection: T cell profile, cytokine dynamics and role of exhausted lymphocytes","volume":"102","author":"Sharov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/7\/1575\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:54:47Z","timestamp":1760140487000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/7\/1575"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v14071575"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14071575","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,20]]}}}