{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T20:14:10Z","timestamp":1772568850424,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":297,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659312000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A Human Betaretrovirus (HBRV) has been identified in humans, dating as far back as about 4500 years ago, with a high probability of it being acquired by our species around 10,000 years ago, following a species jump from mice to humans. HBRV is the human homolog of the MMTV (mouse mammary tumor virus), which is the etiological agent of murine mammary tumors. The hypothesis of a HMTV (human mammary tumor virus) was proposed about 50 years ago, and has acquired a solid scientific basis during the last 30 years, with the demonstration of a robust link with breast cancer and with PBC, primary biliary cholangitis. This article summarizes most of what is known about MMTV\/HMTV\/HBRV since the discovery of MMTV at the beginning of last century, to make evident both the quantity and the quality of the research supporting the existence of HBRV and its pathogenic role. Here, it is sufficient to mention that scientific evidence includes that viral sequences have been identified in breast-cancer samples in a worldwide distribution, that the complete proviral genome has been cloned from breast cancer and patients with PBC, and that saliva contains HBRV, as a possible route of inter-human infection. Controversies that have arisen concerning results obtained from human tissues, many of them outdated by new scientific evidence, are critically discussed and confuted.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14081704","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T23:49:27Z","timestamp":1659397767000},"page":"1704","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["The Viral Origin of Human Breast Cancer: From the Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus (MMTV) to the Human Betaretrovirus (HBRV)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8857-2609","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Generoso","family":"Bevilacqua","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.79.2.137","article-title":"Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types: Induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from Pneumococcus type III","volume":"79","author":"Avery","year":"1944","journal-title":"J. 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