{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T04:16:35Z","timestamp":1788322595210,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,27]],"date-time":"2022-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities","award":["S1511014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S1511014"]}]},{"name":"Nihon University","award":["S1511014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S1511014"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is generally accepted that certain viral infections can trigger the development of autoimmune diseases. However, the exact mechanisms by which these viruses induce autoimmunity are still not understood. In this review, we first describe hypothetical mechanisms by which viruses induce some representative autoimmune diseases. Then, we focus on Epstein\u2013Barr virus (EBV) and discuss its role in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The discussion is mainly based on our own previous findings that (A) EBV DNA and its products EBV-encoded small RNA (EBER) and latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) are present in the synovial lesions of RA, (B) mRNA expression of the signaling lymphocytic activation molecule-associated protein (SAP)\/SH2D1A gene that plays a critical role in cellular immune responses to EBV is reduced in the peripheral T cells of patients with RA, and (C) EBV infection of mice reconstituted with human immune system components (humanized mice) induced erosive arthritis that is pathologically similar to RA. Additionally, environmental factors may contribute to EBV reactivation as follows: Porphyromonas gingivalis peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD), an enzyme required for citrullination, engenders antigens leading to the production of citrullinated peptides both in the gingiva and synovium. Anti-citrullinated peptides autoantibody is an important marker for diagnosis and disease activity of RA. These findings, as well as various results obtained by other researchers, strongly suggest that EBV is directly involved in the pathogenesis of RA, a typical autoimmune disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14091900","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]],"date-time":"2022-08-31T02:09:36Z","timestamp":1661911776000},"page":"1900","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Are Viral Infections Key Inducers of Autoimmune Diseases? Focus on Epstein\u2013Barr Virus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5791-3359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masami","family":"Takei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noboru","family":"Kitamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yosuke","family":"Nagasawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiroshi","family":"Tsuzuki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mitsuhiro","family":"Iwata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasuko","family":"Nagatsuka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hideki","family":"Nakamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0985-4267","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenichi","family":"Imai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Immunology and Pathobiology, Department of Microbiology, Dental Research Center, Nihon University School of Dentistry, 1-8-13 Kanda-Surugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-8310, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shigeyoshi","family":"Fujiwara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hematology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kamimachi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 157-8535, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)81054-5","article-title":"The human cytomegalovirus US11 gene product dislocates MHC class I heavy chains from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol","volume":"84","author":"Wiertz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/nm0396-338","article-title":"Endocytosis of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules is induced by the HIV-1 Nef protein","volume":"2","author":"Schwartz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nat. 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