{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T18:16:32Z","timestamp":1784830592890,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,9]],"date-time":"2022-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1662681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) are mosquito-borne flaviviruses that have been associated with neurological diseases in humans and wild birds. Wild bird rescue centers are potential significant hot spots for avian infection surveillance, as recognized in the Italian Integrate National Surveillance Plan for Arboviruses. Here we report the results of a post-mortem active monitoring study conducted from November 2017 to October 2020 on animals hosted in five wild bird rescue centers of Central Italy. Five hundred seventy-six (n = 576) wild birds were tested by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the presence of WNV or USUV RNA fragments. No birds tested positive for USUV RNA (n = 0; 0.00%). Evidence of WNV RNA (Ct value = 34.36) was found in one bird (n = 1; 0.17%), an adult little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis subsp. ruficollis), that tested WNV positive in December 2019. This study highlights the strategic role of wildlife rescue centers in monitoring both the introduction and circulation of avian emerging zoonotic diseases. In addition, the presence of WNV during the cold season evidences the possible role of birds in overwintering mechanisms in the Italian territory and requires further investigations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14091994","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,9]],"date-time":"2022-09-09T04:54:41Z","timestamp":1662699281000},"page":"1994","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus: A Post-Mortem Monitoring Study in Wild Birds from Rescue Centers, Central Italy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3544-8812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Giglia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pathology, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Mencattelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"OIE National Reference Center for West Nile Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale, dell\u2019Abruzzo e Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d, 64100 Teramo, Italy"},{"name":"Center Agriculture Food Environment, University of Trento, 38098 San Michele all\u2019Adige, Italy"},{"name":"Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, 38098 San Michele all\u2019Adige, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8478-8154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elvio","family":"Lepri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4347-4922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianfilippo","family":"Agliani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pathology, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Gobbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy"},{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Umbria e delle Marche \u201cT. Rosati\u201d, 06126 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Gr\u00f6ne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pathology, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Dutch Wildlife Health Centre, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8420-5406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Judith M. A.","family":"van den Brand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pathology, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Dutch Wildlife Health Centre, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Savini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"OIE National Reference Center for West Nile Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale, dell\u2019Abruzzo e Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Teresa","family":"Mandara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.2310\/7060.2005.12052","article-title":"Shifting epidemiology of Flaviviridae","volume":"12","author":"Petersen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Travel. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04188","article-title":"Impact of regional climate change on human health","volume":"438","author":"Patz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2018.08.016","article-title":"West Nile Virus infection in Northern Italy: Case-crossover study on the short-term effect of climatic parameters","volume":"167","author":"Moirano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2016.09.019","article-title":"Usutu virus infections in humans: A retrospective analysis in the municipality of Modena, Italy","volume":"23","author":"Grottola","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900180","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2019.24.47.1900180","article-title":"Clinical and virological findings in patients with Usutu virus infection, northern Italy, 2018","volume":"24","author":"Pacenti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2015.1851","article-title":"Detection of West Nile and Usutu Viruses in Italian Free Areas: Entomological Surveillance in Piemonte and Liguria Regions, 2014","volume":"16","author":"Pautasso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Percivalle, E., Cassaniti, I., Sarasini, A., Rovida, F., Adzasehoun, K.M.G., Colombini, I., Isernia, P., Cuppari, I., and Baldanti, F. (2020). West Nile or Usutu Virus? A Three-Year Follow-Up of Humoral and Cellular Response in a Group of Asymptomatic Blood Donors. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020157"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04736-z","article-title":"West Nile and Usutu viruses co-circulation in central Italy: Outcomes of the 2018 integrated surveillance","volume":"14","author":"Scaramozzino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2009.07.036","article-title":"Usutu virus in wild birds in northern Italy","volume":"141","author":"Manarolla","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2010.0055","article-title":"Detection of Usutu Virus Within a West Nile Virus Surveillance Program in Northern Italy","volume":"11","author":"Tamba","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2017.2126","article-title":"Usutu Virus Antibodies in Blood Donors and Healthy Forestry Workers in the Lombardy Region, Northern Italy","volume":"17","author":"Percivalle","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900261","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2019.24.21.1900261","article-title":"West Nile virus infection in individuals with pre-existing Usutu virus immunity, northern Italy, 2018","volume":"24","author":"Sinigaglia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.38-4-414","article-title":"Pathologic and Immunohistochemical Findings in Naturally Occurring West Nile Virus Infection in Horses","volume":"38","author":"Cantile","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2020, August 03). Piano Nazionale di prevenzione, sorveglianza e risposta alle Arbovirosi (PNA) 2020\u20132025. Available online: https:\/\/www.salute.gov.it\/imgs\/C_17_pubblicazioni_2947_allegato.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mcaloose, D., Judy, S., and Leger, K.A.T. (2018). Wildlife Necropsy. Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals, Elsevier Science.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-805306-5.00001-8"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2013.02.019","article-title":"A novel quantitative multiplex real-time RT-PCR for the simultaneous detection and differentiation of West Nile virus lineages 1 and 2, and of Usutu virus","volume":"189","author":"Sotelo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2016.07.026","article-title":"Real time PCR assay for detection of all known lineages of West Nile virus","volume":"236","author":"Herrero","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2010.11.008","article-title":"A rapid and specific real-time RT-PCR assay to identify Usutu virus in human plasma, serum, and cerebrospinal fluid","volume":"50","author":"Cavrini","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giglia, G., Agliani, G., Munnink, B.B.O., Sikkema, R.S., Mandara, M.T., Lepri, E., Kik, M., Ijzer, J., Rijks, J.M., and Fast, C. (2021). Pathology and Pathogenesis of Eurasian Blackbirds (Turdus merula) Naturally Infected with Usutu Virus. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081481"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0346-8_17","article-title":"Techniques for the Measurement of Cell Mediated Immune Responses to Avian Influenza Virus","volume":"2123","author":"Kapczynski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vilibic-Cavlek, T., Petrovic, T., Savic, V., Barbic, L., Tabain, I., Stevanovic, V., Klobucar, A., Mrzljak, A., Ilic, M., and Bogdanic, M. (2020). Epidemiology of Usutu Virus: The European Scenario. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9090699"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001203","article-title":"Mosquito-borne epornitic flaviviruses: An update and review","volume":"100","author":"Benzarti","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-800172-1.00005-7","article-title":"Arboviruses Pathogenic for Domestic and Wild Animals","volume":"89","author":"Rudolf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"97","article-title":"Mosquito species involved in the circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in Italy","volume":"53","author":"Mancini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2012.1097","article-title":"Chronic Infections of West Nile Virus Detected in California Dead Birds","volume":"13","author":"Reisen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0654","article-title":"Detection of Persistent West Nile Virus RNA in Experimentally and Naturally Infected Avian Hosts","volume":"87","author":"Wheeler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mencattelli, G., Iapaolo, F., Polci, A., Marcacci, M., Di Gennaro, A., Teodori, L., Curini, V., Di Lollo, V., Secondini, B., and Scialabba, S. (2022). WestNile Virus Lineage 2 Overwinteringin Italy. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed7080160"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vida\u00f1a, B., Busquets, N., Napp, S., P\u00e9rez-Ram\u00edrez, E., Jim\u00e9nez-Clavero, M.\u00c1., and Johnson, N. (2020). The role of birds of prey in West Nile virus epidemiology. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8030550"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2399-7","article-title":"West Nile virus in overwintering mosquitoes, central Europe","volume":"10","author":"Rudolf","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/9\/1994\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:28:08Z","timestamp":1760142488000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/9\/1994"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,9]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["v14091994"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14091994","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2022.07.19.500416","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,9]]}}}