{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T19:27:39Z","timestamp":1789759659537,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":151,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,13]],"date-time":"2022-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663027200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>African swine fever virus (ASFV), a nucleocytoplasmic large DNA virus (NCLDV), causes African swine fever (ASF), an acute hemorrhagic disease with mortality rates up to 100% in domestic pigs. ASF is currently epidemic or endemic in many countries and threatening the global swine industry. Extensive ASF vaccine research has been conducted since the 1920s. Like inactivated viruses of other NCLDVs, such as vaccinia virus, inactivated ASFV vaccine candidates did not induce protective immunity. However, inactivated lumpy skin disease virus (poxvirus) vaccines are protective in cattle. Unlike some experimental poxvirus subunit vaccines that induced protection, ASF subunit vaccine candidates implemented with various platforms containing several ASFV structural genes or proteins failed to protect pigs effectively. Only some live attenuated viruses (LAVs) are able to protect pigs with high degrees of efficacy. There are currently several LAV ASF vaccine candidates. Only one commercial LAV vaccine is approved for use in Vietnam. LAVs, as ASF vaccines, have not yet been widely tested. Reports thus far show that the onset and duration of protection induced by the LAVs are late and short, respectively, compared to LAV vaccines for other diseases. In this review, the biological challenges in the development of ASF vaccines, especially subunit platforms, are discussed from immunological perspectives based on several unusual ASFV characteristics shared with HIV and poxviruses. These characteristics, including multiple distinct infectious virions, extremely high glycosylation and low antigen surface density of envelope proteins, immune evasion, and possible apoptotic mimicry, could pose enormous challenges to the development of ASF vaccines, especially subunit platforms designed to induce humoral immunity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14092021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]],"date-time":"2022-09-14T00:15:02Z","timestamp":1663114502000},"page":"2021","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["African Swine Fever Vaccinology: The Biological Challenges from Immunological Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"James J.","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Orient, NY 11957, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00282","article-title":"Comparative Pathology and Pathogenesis of African Swine Fever Infection in Swine","volume":"7","author":"Salguero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Vet.-Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2012.10.020","article-title":"African swine fever virus replication and genomics","volume":"173","author":"Dixon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2012.09.016","article-title":"African swine fever virus transcription","volume":"173","author":"Salas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00119-20","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00119-20","article-title":"The African Swine Fever Virus Transcriptome","volume":"94","author":"Cackett","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2012.09.016","article-title":"African swine fever virus morphogenesis","volume":"173","author":"Salas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01293-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01293-18","article-title":"A Proteomic Atlas of the African Swine Fever Virus Particle","volume":"92","author":"Alejo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2019.04.002","article-title":"African swine fever virus evasion of host defences","volume":"266","author":"Dixon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11720","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.23.11720-11734.2001","article-title":"Common Origin of Four Diverse Families of Large Eukaryotic DNA Viruses","volume":"75","author":"Iyer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02938-19","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02938-19","article-title":"A New Family of DNA Viruses Causing Disease in Crustaceans from Diverse Aquatic Biomes","volume":"11","author":"Subramaniam","year":"2020","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10397","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.16.10397-10407.2005","article-title":"Vaccinia Virus Tropism for Primary Hematolymphoid Cells Is Determined by Restricted Expression of a Unique Virus Receptor","volume":"79","author":"Chahroudi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2019.02.018","article-title":"African swine fever","volume":"165","author":"Dixon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gladue, D.P., and Borca, M.V. (2022). Recombinant ASF Live Attenuated Virus Strains as Experimental Vaccine Candidates. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14050878"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaudreault, N.N., and Richt, J.A. (2019). Subunit Vaccine Approaches for African Swine Fever Virus. Vaccines, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines7020056"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iacolina, L., Penrith, M., Bellini, S., Chenais, E., Jori, F., Montoya, M., St\u00e5hl, K., and Gavier-Wid\u00e9n, D. (2021). African swine fever vaccines. Understanding and Combatting African Swine Fever, Wageningen Academic Publisher.","DOI":"10.3920\/978-90-8686-910-7"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cadenas-Fern\u00e1ndez, E., S\u00e1nchez-Vizca\u00edno, J.M., Kosowska, A., Rivera, B., Mayoral-Alegre, F., Rodr\u00edguez-Bertos, A., Yao, J., Bray, J., Lokhandwala, S., and Mwangi, W. (2020). Adenovirus-vectored African Swine Fever Virus Antigens Cocktail Is Not Protective against Virulent Arm07 Isolate in Eurasian Wild Boar. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9030171"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goatley, L.C., Reis, A.L., Portugal, R., Goldswain, H., Shimmon, G.L., Hargreaves, Z., Ho, C.-S., Montoya, M., S\u00e1nchez-Cord\u00f3n, P.J., and Taylor, G. (2020). A Pool of Eight Virally Vectored African Swine Fever Antigens Protect Pigs against Fatal Disease. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8020234"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rock, D. (2021). Thoughts on African Swine Fever Vaccines. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13050943"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.05.051","article-title":"Modern adjuvants do not enhance the efficacy of an inactivated African swine fever virus vaccine preparation","volume":"32","author":"Blome","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cadenas-Fern\u00e1ndez, E., S\u00e1nchez-Vizca\u00edno, J.M., van den Born, E., Kosowska, A., van Kilsdonk, E., Fern\u00e1ndez-Pacheco, P., Gallardo, C., Arias, M., and Barasona, J.A. (2021). High Doses of Inactivated African Swine Fever Virus Are Safe, but Do Not Confer Protection against a Virulent Challenge. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9030242"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolff, J., Moritz, T., Schlottau, K., Hoffmann, D., Beer, M., and Hoffmann, B. (2020). Development of a Safe and Highly Efficient Inactivated Vaccine Candidate against Lumpy Skin Disease Virus. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9010004"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2020.108689","article-title":"Development and Evaluation of an Inactivated Lumpy Skin Disease Vaccine for Cattle","volume":"245","author":"Hamdi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5631","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.65.10.5631-5635.1991","article-title":"The purified 14-kilodalton envelope protein of vaccinia virus produced in Esche-richia coli induces virus immunity in animals","volume":"65","author":"Lai","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11724","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.18.11724-11733.2005","article-title":"Vaccinia Virus H3L Envelope Protein Is a Major Target of Neutralizing Antibodies in Humans and Elicits Protection against Lethal Challenge in Mice","volume":"79","author":"Davies","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.09.056","article-title":"Immunization with a single extracellular enveloped virus protein produced in bacteria provides partial protection from a lethal orthopoxvirus infection in a natural host","volume":"345","author":"Fang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10230","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.19.10230-10237.2004","article-title":"Protective immunity to vaccinia virus induced by vaccination with multiple recombinant outer membrane proteins of intracellular and extracellular virions","volume":"78","author":"Fogg","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8022","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00568-08","article-title":"Disparity between Levels of In vitro Neutralization of Vaccinia Virus by Antibody to the A27 Protein and Protection of Mice against Intranasal Challenge","volume":"82","author":"Fogg","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holinka, L.G., O\u2019Donnell, V., Risatti, G.R., Azzinaro, P., Arzt, J., Stenfeldt, C., Velazquez-Salinas, L., Carlson, J., Gladue, D., and Borca, M.V. (2017). Early protection events in swine immunized with an experimental live attenuated classical swine fever marker vaccine, FlagT4G. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0177433"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1086\/595565","article-title":"Postexposure Immunization with Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara or Conventional Lister Vaccine Provides Solid Protection in a Murine Model of Human Smallpox","volume":"199","author":"Paran","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2019.06.006","article-title":"Adenovirus-vectored African Swine Fever Virus antigen cocktails are immunogenic but not protective against intranasal challenge with Georgia 2007\/1 isolate","volume":"235","author":"Lokhandwala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00350-20","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00350-20","article-title":"Absence of Long-Term Protection in Domestic Pigs Immunized with Attenuated African Swine Fever Virus Isolate OURT88\/3 or Benin\u0394MGF Correlates with Increased Levels of Regulatory T Cells and Interleukin-10","volume":"94","author":"Jabbar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1038\/nm917","article-title":"Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination","volume":"9","author":"Hammarlund","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(01)00400-X","article-title":"Oral immunisation against classical swine fever (CSF): Onset and duration of immunity","volume":"82","author":"Kaden","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sereda, A.D., Balyshev, V.M., Kazakova, A.S., Imatdinov, A.R., and Kolbasov, D.V. (2020). Protective Properties of Attenuated Strains of African Swine Fever Virus Belonging to Seroimmunotypes I\u2013VIII. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9040274"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01058-17","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01058-17","article-title":"BA71\u0394CD2: A New Recombinant Live Attenuated African Swine Fever Virus with Cross-Protective Capabilities","volume":"91","author":"Monteagudo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.aivir.2017.10.002","article-title":"African Swine Fever Virus Biology and Vaccine Approaches","volume":"100","author":"Revilla","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13364","article-title":"Current status and evolving approaches to African swine fever vaccine development","volume":"67","author":"Teklue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-020-00154-2","article-title":"African swine fever vaccines: A promising work still in progress","volume":"6","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2020.108832","article-title":"Multifaceted Immune Responses to African Swine Fever Virus: Implications for Vaccine Development","volume":"249","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turlewicz-Podbielska, H., Kuriga, A., Niemyjski, R., Tarasiuk, G., and Pomorska-M\u00f3l, M. (2021). African Swine Fever Virus as a Difficult Opponent in the Fight for a Vaccine\u2014Current Data. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13071212"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1099","article-title":"Poxvirus tropism","volume":"3","author":"McFadden","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(66)90054-7","article-title":"Electron microscope observations of African swine fever virus in tissue culture cells","volume":"28","author":"Breese","year":"1966","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1702(85)90431-9","article-title":"Polypeptides and structure of African swine fever virus","volume":"3","author":"Schloer","year":"1985","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Canter, J.A., Aponte, T., Ramirez-Medina, E., Pruitt, S., Gladue, D.P., Borca, M.V., and Zhu, J.J. (2022). Serum Neutralizing and Enhancing Effects on African Swine Fever Virus Infectivity in Adherent Pig PBMC. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14061249"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e341","DOI":"10.1038\/cddis.2012.81","article-title":"The ATF6 branch of unfolded protein response and apoptosis are activated to promote African swine fever virus infection","volume":"3","author":"Galindo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01314150","article-title":"The existence of an envelope on extracellular cowpox virus and its antigenic relationship to the vaccinia envelope","volume":"90","author":"Payne","year":"1986","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2502","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02247-09","article-title":"The Structure of the Poxvirus A33 Protein Reveals a Dimer of Unique C-Type Lectin-Like Domains","volume":"84","author":"Su","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.70.1.272-281.1996","article-title":"Vaccinia virus glycoprotein A34R is required for infectivity of extracellular enveloped virus","volume":"70","author":"Smith","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4192","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.72.5.4192-4204.1998","article-title":"The Envelope Protein Encoded by the A33R Gene Is Required for Formation of Actin-Containing Microvilli and Efficient Cell-to-Cell Spread of Vaccinia Virus","volume":"72","author":"Roper","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2915","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-83-12-2915","article-title":"The formation and function of extracellular enveloped vaccinia virus","volume":"83","author":"Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2020.02.004","article-title":"Particle-specific neutralizing activity of a monoclonal antibody targeting the poxvirus A33 protein reveals differences between cell associated and extracellular enveloped virions","volume":"544","author":"Mucker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7990","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.15.7990-8001.2004","article-title":"Transport of African Swine Fever Virus from Assembly Sites to the Plasma Membrane Is Dependent on Microtubules and Conventional Kinesin","volume":"78","author":"Jouvenet","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2006.00750.x","article-title":"African swine fever virus induces filopodia-like projections at the plasma membrane","volume":"8","author":"Jouvenet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4299","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.8.4299-4313.2004","article-title":"African Swine Fever Virus Structural Protein p54 Is Essential for the Recruitment of Envelope Precursors to Assembly Sites","volume":"78","author":"Salas","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1996.0193","article-title":"Functional and Immunological Properties of the Baculovirus-Expressed Hemagglutinin of African Swine Fever Virus","volume":"218","author":"Rodriguez","year":"1996","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1998.9068","article-title":"The African Swine Fever Virus Proteins p54 and p30 Are Involved in Two Distinct Steps of Virus Attachment and Both Contribute to the Antibody-Mediated Protective Immune Response","volume":"243","author":"Oviedo","year":"1998","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1007\/s007050170056","article-title":"Antigenic and immunogenic properties of a chimera of two immunodominant African swine fever virus proteins","volume":"146","author":"Barderas","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2003.11.011","article-title":"Neutralizing antibodies to African swine fever virus proteins p30, p54, and p72 are not sufficient for antibody-mediated protection","volume":"319","author":"Neilan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2019.05.012","article-title":"Exploitation of glycosylation in enveloped virus pathobiology","volume":"1863","author":"Watanabe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5312","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.67.9.5312-5320.1993","article-title":"African swine fever virus encodes a CD2 homolog responsible for the adhesion of erythrocytes to infected cells","volume":"67","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3294","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01994-10","article-title":"Processing and Localization of the African Swine Fever Virus CD2v Transmembrane Protein","volume":"85","author":"Goatley","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1999.0080","article-title":"African Swine Fever Virus EP153R Open Reading Frame Encodes a Glycoprotein Involved in the Hemadsorption of Infected Cells","volume":"266","author":"Galindo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000024","article-title":"African swine fever virus CD2v and C-type lectin gene loci mediate serological specificity","volume":"96","author":"Malogolovkin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000490","article-title":"African swine fever virus serotype-specific proteins are significant protective antigens for African swine fever","volume":"97","author":"Burmakina","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gladue, D.P., O\u2019Donnell, V., Ramirez-Medina, E., Rai, A., Pruitt, S., Vuono, E.A., Silva, E., Velazquez-Salinas, L., and Borca, M.V. (2020). Deletion of CD2-Like (CD2v) and C-Type Lectin-Like (EP153R) Genes from African Swine Fever Virus Georgia-\u22069GL Abrogates Its Effectiveness as an Experimental Vaccine. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12101185"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0134021","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01340-21","article-title":"Role of African Swine Fever Virus Proteins EP153R and EP402R in Reducing Viral Persistence in Blood and Virulence in Pigs Infected with Benin\u0394DP148R","volume":"96","author":"Petrovan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2015.02.002","article-title":"Targeting host-derived glycans on enveloped viruses for antibody-based vaccine design","volume":"11","author":"Crispin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638573","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.638573","article-title":"The Importance of Glycans of Viral and Host Proteins in Enveloped Virus Infection","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1159\/000090194","article-title":"Naturally Presented MHC Ligands Carrying Glycans","volume":"33","author":"Dengjel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Transfus. Med. Hemother."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M706237200","article-title":"N-Linked Glycosylation Does Not Impair Proteasomal Degradation but Affects Class I Major Histocompatibility Complex Presentation","volume":"283","author":"Kario","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1993.1534","article-title":"Characterization of a Soluble Hemagglutinin Induced in African Swine Fever Virus-Infected Cells","volume":"196","author":"Gonzalvo","year":"1993","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-3-10","article-title":"Pox proteomics: Mass spectrometry analysis and identification of Vaccinia virion proteins","volume":"3","author":"Yoder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klein, J.S., and Bjorkman, P.J. (2010). Few and Far Between: How HIV May Be Evading Antibody Avidity. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000908"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amitai, A., Chakraborty, A.K., and Kardar, M. (2018). The low spike density of HIV may have evolved because of the effects of T helper cell depletion on affinity maturation. PLoS Comput. Biol., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1006408"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3767","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03942-z","article-title":"Impact of Antigen Density on the Binding Mechanism of IgG Antibodies","volume":"7","author":"Hadzhieva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.AC119.011196","article-title":"The cryo-EM structure of African swine fever virus unravels a unique architecture comprising two icosahedral protein capsids and two lipoprotein membranes","volume":"295","author":"Charro","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.11.004","article-title":"Cryo-EM Structure of the African Swine Fever Virus","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaz1439","article-title":"Architecture of African swine fever virus and implications for viral assembly","volume":"366","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-010-0846-2","article-title":"The African swine fever virus lectin EP153R modulates the surface membrane expression of MHC class I antigens","volume":"156","author":"Hurtado","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.64.4.1437-1440.1990","article-title":"Serum enhancement of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection correlates with disease in HIV-infected individuals","volume":"64","author":"Homsy","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4275","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03287-13","article-title":"Role of Phosphatidylserine Receptors in Enveloped Virus Infection","volume":"88","author":"Morizono","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"565","article-title":"Phosphatidylserine receptors: Enhancers of enveloped virus entry and infection","volume":"468","author":"Maury","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-019-0452-1","article-title":"Roles of phosphatidylserine exposed on the viral envelope and cell membrane in HIV-1 replication","volume":"17","author":"Chua","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2015.08.003","article-title":"An Apoptotic \u2018Eat Me\u2019 Signal: Phosphatidylserine Exposure","volume":"25","author":"Segawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-019-0167-y","article-title":"How macrophages deal with death","volume":"19","author":"Lemke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3469","article-title":"Viral apoptotic mimicry","volume":"13","author":"Amara","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00709-20","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00709-20","article-title":"Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus Utilizes Viral Apoptotic Mimicry as an Alternative Pathway To Infect Host Cells","volume":"94","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2011.03.012","article-title":"The Soluble Serum Protein Gas6 Bridges Virion Envelope Phosphatidylserine to the TAM Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Axl to Mediate Viral Entry","volume":"9","author":"Morizono","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-009-0466-x","article-title":"Apoptosis in porcine macrophages infected in vitro with African swine fever virus (ASFV) strains with different virulence","volume":"154","author":"Portugal","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch Virol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2001.1348","article-title":"Apoptosis Induced in an Early Step of African Swine Fever Virus Entry into Vero Cells Does Not Require Virus Replication","volume":"294","author":"Carrascosa","year":"2002","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S475","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy489","article-title":"Disruption of Phosphatidylserine Synthesis or Trafficking Reduces Infectivity of Ebola Virus","volume":"218","author":"Younan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0116521","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01165-21","article-title":"Ebola Virus Requires Phosphatidylserine Scrambling Activity for Efficient Budding and Optimal Infectivity","volume":"95","author":"Acciani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2478(93)90136-P","article-title":"The relative density of CD44-positive porcine monocytic cell populations varies between isolations and upon culture and influences susceptibility to infection by African swine fever virus","volume":"37","author":"McCullough","year":"1993","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2567.1999.00867.x","article-title":"Intermediate stages in monocyte-macrophage differentiation modulate phenotype and susceptibility to virus infection","volume":"98","author":"McCullough","year":"1999","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2016.12.010","article-title":"Characterization of the interaction of African swine fever virus with monocytes and derived macrophage subsets","volume":"198","author":"Franzoni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3961","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.162.7.3961","article-title":"Modulation of monocytic cell activity and virus susceptibility during differentiation into macrophages","volume":"162","author":"Basta","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2007.11.009","article-title":"Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells","volume":"44","author":"Hart","year":"2008","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2015.01.022","article-title":"African swine fever virus infects macrophages, the natural host cells, via clathrin- and cholesterol-dependent endocytosis","volume":"200","author":"Galindo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hernaez, B., Guerra, M., Salas, M.L., and Andr\u00e9s, G. (2016). African Swine Fever Virus Undergoes Outer Envelope Disruption, Capsid Disassembly and Inner Envelope Fusion before Core Release from Multivesicular Endosomes. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005595"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-003-0188-4","article-title":"Expression of porcine CD163 on monocytes\/macrophages correlates with permissiveness to African swine fever infection","volume":"148","author":"Alonso","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2013.12.001","article-title":"Correlation of cell surface marker expression with African swine fever virus infection","volume":"168","author":"Lithgow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2016.11.012","article-title":"Genetically edited pigs lacking CD163 show no resistance following infection with the African swine fever virus isolate, Georgia 2007\/1","volume":"501","author":"Popescu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez, E.G., P\u00e9rez-N\u00fa\u00f1ez, D., and Revilla, Y. (2017). Mechanisms of Entry and Endosomal Pathway of African Swine Fever Virus. Vaccines, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines5040042"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaulagain, S., Delhon, G., Khatiwada, S., and Rock, D. (2021). African Swine Fever Virus CD2v Protein Induces \u03b2-Interferon Expression and Apoptosis in Swine Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081480"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1038\/326400a0","article-title":"The T lymphocyte glycoprotein CD2 binds the cell surface ligand LFA-3","volume":"326","author":"Selvaraj","year":"1987","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathys, L., and Balzarini, J. (2015). Several N-Glycans on the HIV Envelope Glycoprotein gp120 Preferentially Locate Near Disulphide Bridges and Are Required for Efficient Infectivity and Virus Transmission. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0130621"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.07.012","article-title":"The Impact of Mutations in SARS-CoV-2 Spike on Viral Infectivity and Antigenicity","volume":"182","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chembiol.2020.12.005","article-title":"Resident and elicited murine macrophages differ in expression of their glycomes and glycan-binding proteins","volume":"28","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2881","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.72.4.2881-2889.1998","article-title":"Deletion of a CD2-Like Gene, 8-DR, from African Swine Fever Virus Affects Viral Infection in Domestic Swine","volume":"72","author":"Borca","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57455-3","article-title":"Deletion of CD2-like gene from the genome of African swine fever virus strain Georgia does not attenuate virulence in swine","volume":"10","author":"Borca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burnie, J., and Guzzo, C. (2019). The Incorporation of Host Proteins into the External HIV-1 Envelope. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11010085"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(91)90912-U","article-title":"Fc receptors do not mediate African swine fever virus replication in macrophages","volume":"181","year":"1991","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"1858","article-title":"Neutralization of African swine fever virus by sera from African swine fever-resistant pigs","volume":"47","author":"Caballero","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"1249","article-title":"Inhibition of African swine fever infection in the presence of immune sera in vivo and in vitro","volume":"47","author":"Carnero","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1993.1515","article-title":"Virulent African swine fever virus isolates are neutralized by swine immune serum and by monoclonal antibodies recognizing a 72-kDa viral protein","volume":"196","author":"Zsak","year":"1993","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1994.1311","article-title":"African Swine Fever Virus Structural Protein p72 Contains a Conformational Neutralizing Epitope","volume":"201","author":"Borca","year":"1994","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5689","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.70.8.5689-5694.1996","article-title":"Neutralizing antibodies to different proteins of African swine fever virus inhibit both virus attachment and internalization","volume":"70","author":"Oviedo","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1702(97)01463-9","article-title":"Blocking antibodies inhibit complete African swine fever virus neutralization","volume":"49","author":"Escribano","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2018.11.018","article-title":"Evaluation of a viral DNA-protein immunization strategy against African swine fever in domestic pigs","volume":"208","author":"Sunwoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet.-Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5463","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.67.9.5463-5471.1993","article-title":"Inhibition of African swine fever virus binding and infectivity by purified recombinant virus attachment protein p12","volume":"67","author":"Angulo","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1656(95)00035-O","article-title":"Production and purification of recombinant African swine fever virus attachment protein p12","volume":"40","author":"Carrascosa","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02152-12","article-title":"Unusual Features of Vaccinia Virus Extracellular Virion Form Neutralization Resistance Revealed in Human Antibody Responses to the Smallpox Vaccine","volume":"87","author":"Benhnia","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1996.8391","article-title":"Neutralization Susceptibility of African Swine Fever Virus Is Dependent on the Phospholipid Composition of Viral Particles","volume":"228","author":"Oviedo","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201305094","article-title":"Phosphatidylserine flipping enhances membrane curvature and negative charge required for vesicular transport","volume":"202","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-01554-9","article-title":"Membrane curvature induced by proximity of anionic phospholipids can initiate endocytosis","volume":"8","author":"Hirama","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Q., Yang, Y., Quan, W., Zheng, J., Luo, Y., Wang, H., Chen, X., Huang, Z., Chen, X., and Xu, R. (2021). The African Swine Fever Virus with MGF360 and MGF505 Deleted Reduces the Apoptosis of Porcine Alveolar Macrophages by Inhibiting the NF-\u03baB Signaling Pathway and Interleukin-1\u03b2. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9111371"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2004.06.001","article-title":"The African swine fever virus dynein-binding protein p54 induces infected cell apoptosis","volume":"569","author":"Hernaez","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dixon, L.K., Cord\u00f3n, P.S., Galindo, I., and Alonso, C. (2017). Investigations of Pro- and Anti-Apoptotic Factors Affecting African Swine Fever Virus Replication and Pathogenesis. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9090241"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-3119(19)62762-0","article-title":"Insights into African swine fever virus immunoevasion strategies","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Integr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2012.10.012","article-title":"Antibody-mediated neutralization of African swine fever virus: Myths and facts","volume":"173","author":"Escribano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2634","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.7.2634-2641.2005","article-title":"Biological Activity of an Intravenous Preparation of Human Vaccinia Immune Globulin in Mouse Models of Vaccinia Virus Infection","volume":"49","author":"Shearer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.01.038","article-title":"Effective post-exposure protection against lethal orthopoxviruses infection by vaccinia immune globulin involves induction of adaptive immune response","volume":"27","author":"Lustig","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"1367","article-title":"African swine fever in neonatal pigs: Passively acquired pro-tection from colostrum or serum of recovered pigs","volume":"45","author":"Schlafer","year":"1984","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"1361","article-title":"African swine fever convalescent sows: Subsequent pregnancy and the effect of colostral antibody on challenge inoculation of their pigs","volume":"45","author":"Schlafer","year":"1984","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet.-Res."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1994.1040","article-title":"Passively Transferred African Swine Fever Virus Antibodies Protect Swine against Lethal Infection","volume":"198","author":"Onisk","year":"1994","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"75","article-title":"Complement-mediated lysis of African swine fever virus-infected cells","volume":"46","author":"Norley","year":"1982","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5288(18)32207-0","article-title":"Effector mechanisms in the pig. Antibody-dependent cellular cytolysis of African swine fever virus infected cells","volume":"35","author":"Norley","year":"1983","journal-title":"Res. Vet.-Sci."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sunwoo, S.-Y., P\u00e9rez-N\u00fa\u00f1ez, D., Morozov, I., S\u00e1nchez, E.G., Gaudreault, N.N., Trujillo, J.D., Mur, L., Nogal, M., Madden, D., and Urbaniak, K. (2019). DNA-Protein Vaccination Strategy Does Not Protect from Challenge with African Swine Fever Virus Armenia 2007 Strain. Vaccines, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines7010012"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5288(18)31917-9","article-title":"Cytotoxic lymphocytes induced by African swine fever infection","volume":"37","author":"Norley","year":"1984","journal-title":"Res. Vet.-Sci."},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"593","article-title":"Investigation of porcine natural-killer cell activity with reference to African swine-fever virus infection","volume":"49","author":"Norley","year":"1983","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01316896","article-title":"African swine fever virus specific porcine cytotoxic T cell activity","volume":"129","author":"Martins","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1702(97)01459-7","article-title":"African swine fever virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes recognize the 32 kDa immediate early protein (vp32)","volume":"49","author":"Alonso","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2012.11.009","article-title":"Cellular immunity in ASFV responses","volume":"173","author":"Takamatsu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-82-3-513","article-title":"The non-haemadsorbing African swine fever virus isolate ASFV\/NH\/P68 provides a model for defining the protective anti-virus immune response","volume":"82","author":"Leitao","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2445","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.81038-0","article-title":"In vivo depletion of CD8+ T lymphocytes abrogates protective immunity to African swine fever virus","volume":"86","author":"Oura","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Argilaguet, J., Perez-Martin, E., Nofrar\u00edas, M., Gallardo, C., Accensi, F., Lacasta, A., Mora, M., Ballester, M., Galindo-Cardiel, I., and L\u00f3pez-Soria, S. (2012). DNA Vaccination Partially Protects against African Swine Fever Virus Lethal Challenge in the Absence of Antibodies. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0040942"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.04.052","article-title":"Protection of European domestic pigs from virulent African isolates of African swine fever virus by experimental immunisation","volume":"29","author":"King","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bosch-Cam\u00f3s, L., L\u00f3pez, E., Collado, J., Navas, M., Blanco-Fuertes, M., Pina-Pedrero, S., Accensi, F., Salas, M., Mundt, E., and Nikolin, V. (2021). M448R and MGF505-7R: Two African Swine Fever Virus Antigens Commonly Recognized by ASFV-Specific T-Cells and with Protective Potential. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9050508"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001195","article-title":"Identification of T-cell epitopes in African swine fever virus CD2v and C-type lectin proteins","volume":"100","author":"Burmakina","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, W., Zhang, H., Fan, W., He, L., Chen, T., Zhou, X., Qi, Y., Sun, L., Hu, R., and Luo, T. (2021). Evaluation of Cellular Immunity with ASFV Infection by Swine Leukocyte Antigen (SLA)\u2014Peptide Tetramers. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13112264"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lokhandwala, S., Waghela, S.D., Bray, J., Sangewar, N., Charendoff, C., Martin, C.L., Hassan, W.S., Koynarski, T., Gabbert, L., and Burrage, T.G. (2017). Adenovirus-vectored novel African Swine Fever Virus antigens elicit robust immune responses in swine. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0177007"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01318","article-title":"Identification and Immunogenicity of African Swine Fever Virus Antigens","volume":"10","author":"Netherton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/9\/2021\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:30:06Z","timestamp":1760142606000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/9\/2021"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,13]]},"references-count":151,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["v14092021"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14092021","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,13]]}}}