{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T22:18:23Z","timestamp":1793830703079,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":160,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]],"date-time":"2022-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664409600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The 2022 multi-country monkeypox outbreak in humans has brought new public health adversity on top of the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The disease has spread to 104 countries throughout six continents of the world, with the highest burden in North America and Europe. The etiologic agent, monkeypox virus (MPXV), has been known since 1959 after isolation from infected monkeys, and virulence among humans has been reported since the 1970s, mainly in endemic countries in West and Central Africa. However, the disease has re-emerged in 2022 at an unprecedented pace, with particular concern on its human-to-human transmissibility and community spread in non-endemic regions. As a mitigation effort, healthcare workers, public health policymakers, and the general public worldwide need to be well-informed on this relatively neglected viral disease. Here, we provide a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of monkeypox, including the following aspects: epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, and management. In addition, the current review discusses the preventive and control measures, the latest vaccine developments, and the future research areas in this re-emerging viral disease that was declared as a public health emergency of international concern.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14102155","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,30]],"date-time":"2022-09-30T01:43:01Z","timestamp":1664502181000},"page":"2155","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":156,"title":["Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7630-8413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Harapan","family":"Harapan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Unit, School of Medicine, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia"},{"name":"Tropical Disease Centre, School of Medicine, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia"},{"name":"Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center (TDMRC), Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Youdiil","family":"Ophinni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"},{"name":"Laboratory of Host Defense, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, Osaka 565-0874, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9230-2265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dewi","family":"Megawati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Universitas Warmadewa, Bali 80239, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4923-2948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andri","family":"Frediansyah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group for Food Microbiology and Biotechnology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Yogyakarta 55861, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sukamto S.","family":"Mamada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hasanuddin University, Makassar 90245, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mirnawati","family":"Salampe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Farmasi Makassar, Makassar 90242, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3188-2272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Talha","family":"Bin Emran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh, Chittagong 4381, Bangladesh"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0880-7445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wira","family":"Winardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pulmonology and Respiratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raisha","family":"Fathima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Unit, School of Medicine, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia"},{"name":"Tropical Disease Centre, School of Medicine, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8254-7066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salin","family":"Sirinam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Pediatrics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pichamon","family":"Sittikul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tropical Pediatrics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana M.","family":"Stoian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0989-4023","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Firzan","family":"Nainu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hasanuddin University, Makassar 90245, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0165-9670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Malik","family":"Sallam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratories and Forensic Medicine, Jordan University Hospital, Amman 11942, Jordan"},{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, 22184 Malm\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO | World Health Organization (2022, May 30). 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