{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:36:32Z","timestamp":1760232992205,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,9]],"date-time":"2022-12-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000277","name":"Defra","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SE0431","733176"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SE0431","733176"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000277","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program","award":["SE0431","733176"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SE0431","733176"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rabies is a neglected tropical disease. The prototype virus, the rabies virus, still causes tens of thousands of human fatalities annually. Rabies is one member of the genus Lyssavirus. The burden of other lyssaviruses is unclear. The continued emergence of novel lyssaviruses means that assessment of vaccine efficacy against these viruses is critical, as standard rabies vaccines are not efficacious against all lyssaviruses. Taiwan bat lyssavirus (TWBLV) was first reported in 2018 following isolation from Japanese house bats. Since the initial detection and genetic characterisation, no attempts have been made to antigenically define this virus. Due to the inaccessibility of the wildtype isolate, the successful generation of a live recombinant virus, cSN-TWBLV, is described, where the full-length genome clone of the RABV vaccine strain, SAD-B19, was constructed with the glycoprotein of TWBLV. In vitro and in vivo characterization of cSN-TWBLV was undertaken and demonstrated evidence for cross-neutralisation of cSN-TWBLV with phylogroup I -specific sera and rabies virus standard sera. For neutralisation equivalent to 0.5 IU\/mL of WHO and World Organisation of Animal Health (WOAH) sera against CVS, 0.5 IU\/mL of WOAH sera and 2.5 IU\/mL of WHO sera were required to neutralise cSN-TWBLV. In addition, specific sera for ARAV and EBLV-1 exhibited the highest neutralising antibody titres against cSN-TWBLV, compared to other phylogroup I-specific sera.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14122750","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,9]],"date-time":"2022-12-09T06:14:00Z","timestamp":1670566440000},"page":"2750","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Taiwan Bat Lyssavirus: In Vitro and In Vivo Assessment of the Ability of Rabies Vaccine-Derived Antibodies to Neutralise a Novel Lyssavirus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7039-9596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebecca","family":"Shipley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, London KT15 3NB, UK"},{"name":"Viral Pseudotype Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7041-5138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward","family":"Wright","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Viral Pseudotype Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samuel P.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, London KT15 3NB, UK"},{"name":"Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George\u2019s Hospital Medical School, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7529-7844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Selden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, London KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3243-6154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anthony R.","family":"Fooks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, London KT15 3NB, UK"},{"name":"Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George\u2019s Hospital Medical School, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1286-9825","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashley C.","family":"Banyard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, London KT15 3NB, UK"},{"name":"Viral Pseudotype Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK"},{"name":"Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George\u2019s Hospital Medical School, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Fooks, A.R., and Jackson, A.C. (2020). Chapter 7-Bat Rabies. Rabies, Academic Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62707-5","article-title":"Current status of rabies and prospects for elimination","volume":"384","author":"Fooks","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17091","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.91","article-title":"Rabies","volume":"3","author":"Fooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"001689","article-title":"ICTV Report Consortium. ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Rhabdoviridae","volume":"103","author":"Walker","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvelage, S., Tammiranta, N., Nokireki, T., Gadd, T., Eggerbauer, E., Zaeck, L.M., Potratz, M., Wylezich, C., H\u00f6per, D., and M\u00fcller, T. (2021). Genetic and Antigenetic Characterization of the Novel Kotalahti Bat Lyssavirus (KBLV). Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13010069"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3056","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2612.203592","article-title":"Lyssaviruses in Insectivorous Bats, South Africa, 2003\u20132018","volume":"26","author":"Coertse","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1071\/MA17006","article-title":"The impact of novel lyssavirus discovery","volume":"38","author":"Banyard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiol. Aust."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.31.3.2152","article-title":"The WHO Rabies Bulletin europe: A key source of information on rabies and a pivotal tool for surveillance and epidemiology","volume":"31","author":"Freuling","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12669","article-title":"Human rabies in India: An audit from a rabies diagnostic laboratory","volume":"21","author":"Mani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.3.4.333","article-title":"The challenge of new and emerging lyssaviruses","volume":"3","author":"Fooks","year":"2004","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hayman, D.T., Fooks, A.R., Marston, D.A., and Garcia, R.J.C. (2016). The global phylogeography of lyssaviruses-challenging the\u2019out of Afri-ca\u2019hypothesis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005266"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.065953-0","article-title":"Comparative studies on the genetic, antigenic and pathogenic characteristics of Bokeloh bat lyssavirus","volume":"95","author":"Nolden","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/0264-410X(88)90107-7","article-title":"Efficacy of rabies vaccines against Duvenhage virus isolated from European house bats (Eptesicus serotinus), classic rabies and rabies-related viruses","volume":"6","author":"Fekadu","year":"1988","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D708","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkx932","article-title":"Virus taxonomy: The database of the Interna-tional Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)","volume":"46","author":"Lefkowitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"World Health Organization (1992). WHO Expert Committee on Rabies [Meeting Held in GENEVA from 24 to 30 September 1991]: Eighth Rep4ort, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2799","DOI":"10.4161\/21645515.2014.972741","article-title":"Cross-neutralization of antibodies induced by vaccination with Purified Chick Embryo Cell Vaccine (PCECV) against different Lyssavirus species","volume":"10","author":"Malerczyk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"185","article-title":"Ability of rabies vaccine strains to elicit cross-neutralising antibodies","volume":"125","author":"Brookes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001068","article-title":"Isolation, antigenicity and immunogenicity of Lleida bat lyssavirus","volume":"99","author":"Banyard","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.061952-0","article-title":"Antigenic and genetic characterization of a divergent African virus, Ikoma lyssavirus","volume":"95","author":"Horton","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3268","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.7.3268-3276.2001","article-title":"Evidence of two Lyssavirus phylogroups with distinct pathogenicity and immu-nogenicity","volume":"75","author":"Badrane","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2404.171696","article-title":"Lyssavirus in Japanese Pipistrelle, Taiwan","volume":"24","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, S.-C., Hsu, C.-L., Lee, F., Tu, Y.-C., Chen, Y.-W., Chang, J.-C., and Hsu, W.C. (2022). Novel Bat Lyssaviruses Identified by Nationwide Passive Sur-veillance in Taiwan, 2018\u20132021. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14071562"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.3109\/13550280009018301","article-title":"Reinvestigation of the role of the rabies virus glycoprotein in viral pathogenesis using a reverse genetics approach","volume":"6","author":"Morimoto","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. NeuroVirology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.048827-0","article-title":"Interspecies protein substitution to inves-tigate the role of the lyssavirus glycoprotein","volume":"94","author":"Marston","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Gen Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evans, J.S., Wu, G., Selden, D., Buczkowski, H., Thorne, L., Fooks, A.R., and Banyard, A.C. (2018). Utilisation of Chimeric Lyssaviruses to Assess Vaccine Protection against Highly Divergent Lyssaviruses. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10030130"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16328","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407289101","article-title":"Identification of viral genomic elements responsible for rabies virus neuroinvasiveness","volume":"101","author":"Faber","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4430","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.9.4430-4434.2001","article-title":"Rabies Virus-Based Vectors Expressing Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) Envelope Protein Induce a Strong, Cross-Reactive Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte Response against Envelope Proteins from Different HIV-1 Isolates","volume":"75","author":"McGettigan","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00102-9","article-title":"Negri bodies are viral factories with properties of liquid organelles","volume":"8","author":"Nikolic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4195","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1994.tb06739.x","article-title":"Infectious rabies viruses from cloned cDNA","volume":"13","author":"Schnell","year":"1994","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shipley, R., Wright, E., Lean, F., Selden, D., Horton, D., Fooks, A., and Banyard, A. (2021). Assessing Rabies Vaccine Protection against a Novel Lyssavirus, Kotalahti Bat Lyssavirus. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13050947"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000998","article-title":"Antigenic site changes in the rabies virus glycoprotein dictates functionality and neutralizing capability against divergent lyssaviruses","volume":"99","author":"Evans","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11841","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01153-10","article-title":"Quantifying antigenic relationships among the Lyssaviruses","volume":"84","author":"Horton","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2005.03.037","article-title":"Rabies human diploid cell vaccine elicits cross-neutralising and cross-protecting immune responses against European and Australian bat lyssaviruses","volume":"23","author":"Brookes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-002-0877-4","article-title":"Phylogenetic comparison of the genus Lyssavirus using distal coding sequences of the glycoprotein and nucleoprotein genes","volume":"147","author":"Johnson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1702(03)00217-X","article-title":"Bat lyssaviruses (Aravan and Khujand) from Central Asia: Phylogenetic relationships according to N, P and G gene sequences","volume":"97","author":"Kuzmin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1519","article-title":"Novel lyssavirus in Natterer\u2019s bat, Germany","volume":"17","author":"Freuling","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marston, D.A., McElhinney, L.M., Ellis, R.J., Horton, D.L., Wise, E.L., Leech, S.L., David, D., de Lamballerie, X., and Fooks, A.R. (2013). Next generation sequencing of viral RNA genomes. BMC Genom., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-14-444"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McElhinney, L.M., Marston, D.A., Wise, E.L., Freuling, C.M., Bourhy, H., Zanoni, R., Moldal, T., Kooi, E.A., Neubauer-Juric, A., and Nokireki, T. (2018). Molecular Epidemiology and Evolution of European Bat Lyssavirus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19010156"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2208.151986","article-title":"Lyssavirus in Indian Flying Foxes, Sri Lanka","volume":"22","author":"Gunawardena","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2005.03.008","article-title":"Phylogenetic relationships of Irkut and West Caucasian bat viruses within the Lyssavirus genus and suggested quantitative criteria based on the N gene sequence for lyssavirus genotype definition","volume":"111","author":"Kuzmin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2204","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.2008\/000349-0","article-title":"Investigating antibody neutralization of lys-saviruses using lentiviral pseudotypes: A cross-species comparison","volume":"89","author":"Wright","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Gen Virol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2012.12.011","article-title":"Pathobiology of rabies virus and the European bat lyssaviruses in experimentally infected mice","volume":"172","author":"Healy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"551","article-title":"Rabies and quarantine","volume":"139","author":"Dean","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2008.09.001","article-title":"Comparative Pathological Study of the Murine Brain after Experimental Infection with Classical Rabies Virus and European Bat Lyssaviruses","volume":"140","author":"Hicks","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2011.07.002","article-title":"A universal real-time assay for the detection of Lyssaviruses","volume":"177","author":"Hayman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"e59709","article-title":"Pan-lyssavirus Real Time RT-PCR for Rabies Diagnosis","volume":"149","author":"Marston","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1759(97)00212-3","article-title":"Development of a fluorescent antibody virus neutralisation test (FAVN test) for the quantitation of rabies-neutralising antibody","volume":"212","author":"Cliquet","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1097211","article-title":"Mapping the Antigenic and Genetic Evolution of Influenza Virus","volume":"305","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01309-10","article-title":"Rabies Virus (RV) Glycoprotein Expression Levels Are Not Critical for Pathogenicity of RV","volume":"85","author":"Wirblich","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1222","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001299","article-title":"Codon optimization of G protein enhances rabies virus-induced humoral immunity","volume":"100","author":"Pei","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"751","article-title":"Genome-Wide Transcriptional Profiling Reveals Two Distinct Outcomes in Central Nervous System Infections of Rabies Virus","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3711","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.72.5.3711-3719.1998","article-title":"Collaboration of antibody and inflammation in clearance of rabies virus from the central nervous system","volume":"72","author":"Hooper","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Virol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/12\/2750\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:37:15Z","timestamp":1760146635000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/12\/2750"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,9]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v14122750"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14122750","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-4915"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,9]]}}}