{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T17:39:13Z","timestamp":1791999553109,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]],"date-time":"2022-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1671148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Cancer Research UK","award":["C25574\/A24321"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["C25574\/A24321"]}]},{"name":"Cancer Research UK","award":["777682"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["777682"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","award":["C25574\/A24321"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["C25574\/A24321"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","award":["777682"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["777682"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Norovirus (NoV) is an enteric non-enveloped virus which is the leading cause of gastroenteritis across all age groups. It is responsible for around 200,000 deaths annually and outbreaks are common in small communities such as educational and care facilities. 40% of all NoV outbreaks occur in long-term and acute-care facilities, forming the majority of outbreaks. Nosocomial settings set ideal environments for ease of transmission, especially due to the presence of immunocompromised groups. It is estimated to cost global economies around \u00a348 billion a year, making it a global issue. NoV is transmitted via the faecal-oral route and infection with it results in asymptomatic cases or gastrointestinal disease. It has high mutational rates and this allows for new variants to emerge and be more resistant. The classification system available divides NoV into 10 genogroups and 49 genotypes based on whole amino acid sequencing of VP1 capsid protein and partial sequencing of RdRp, respectively. The most predominant genotypes which cause gastroenteritis in humans include GI.1 and GII.4, where GII.4 is responsible for more extreme clinical implications such as hospitalisation. In addition, GII.4 has been responsible for 6 pandemic strains, the last of which is the GII.4 Sydney (2012) variant. In recent years, the successful cultivation of HuNoV was reported in stem cell-derived human intestinal enteroids (HIEs), which promises to assist in giving a deeper understanding of its underlying mechanisms of infection and the development of more personalized control measures. There are no specific control measures against NoV, therefore common practices are used against it such as hand washing. No vaccine is available, but the HIL-214 candidate passed clinical phase 2b and shows promise.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14122811","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]],"date-time":"2022-12-16T04:30:00Z","timestamp":1671165000000},"page":"2811","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":126,"title":["Norovirus: An Overview of Virology and Preventative Measures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Natalie","family":"Winder","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Sheffield, South Yorkshire S10 2TN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Gohar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Sheffield, South Yorkshire S10 2TN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2497-8903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Munitta","family":"Muthana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Sheffield, South Yorkshire S10 2TN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.10.5.1075-1081.1972","article-title":"Visualization by Immune Electron Microscopy of a 27-nm Particle Associated with Acute Infectious Nonbacterial Gastroenteritis","volume":"10","author":"Kapikian","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-804177-2.00004-X","article-title":"Structure and Genotypes of Noroviruses","volume":"1","author":"Chan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Norovirus"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopman, B., Armstrong, B., Atchison, C., and Gray, J.J. (2009). Host, Weather and Virological Factors Drive Norovirus Epidemiology: Time-Series Analysis of Laboratory Surveillance Data in England and Wales. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006671"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1136\/jcp.32.8.786","article-title":"Winter vomiting disease caused by calicivirus","volume":"32","author":"Cubitt","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1086\/421948","article-title":"Clinical manifestation of norovirus gastroenteritis in health care settings","volume":"39","author":"Lopman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. IDSA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy167","article-title":"Estimating the Hospital Burden of Norovirus-Associated Gastroenteritis in England and Its Opportunity Costs for Nonadmitted Patients","volume":"67","author":"Sandmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Predicted norovirus resurgence in 2021\u20132022 the relaxation of nonpharmaceutical interventions associated with COVID-19 restrictions in England: A mathematical modeling study","volume":"19","author":"Sandman","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27426","article-title":"Ullah Norovirus outbreak amid COVID-19 in the United Kingdom; priorities for achieving control","volume":"94","author":"Yasmin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"UKHSA (2022, October 20). National Norovirus and Rotavirus Bulletins 2021 to 2022: Management Information, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/statistical-data-sets\/national-norovirus-and-rotavirus-bulletin-management-information--2."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"GOVUK (2022, October 23). Norovirus: Guidance, Data and Analysis, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/collections\/norovirus-guidance-data-and-analysis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19478","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M603313200","article-title":"Conformational stability and disassembly of Norwalk virus-like particles. Effect of pH and temperature","volume":"281","author":"Ausar","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1993.1345","article-title":"Sequence and genomic organization of Norwalk virus","volume":"195","author":"Jiang","year":"1993","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-013-1708-5","article-title":"Proposal for a unified norovirus nomenclature and genotyping","volume":"158","author":"Kroneman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McFadden, N., Bailey, D., Carrara, G., Benson, A., Chaudhry, Y., Shortland, A., Heeney, J., Yarovinsky, F., Simmoeternds, P., and Macdonald, A. (2011). Norovirus regulation of the innate immune response and apoptosis occurs via the product of the alternative open reading frame 4. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002413"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5438.287","article-title":"X-ray crystallographic structure of the Norwalk virus capsid","volume":"286","author":"Prasad","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31128-0","article-title":"Viral gastroenteritis","volume":"392","author":"Estes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.1.405-415.2003","article-title":"Norwalk virus-like particle hemagglutination by binding to h histo-blood group antigens","volume":"77","author":"Hutson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02179-09","article-title":"Heterotypic Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses following Norwalk Virus Infection","volume":"84","author":"Lindesmith","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5855","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00317-16","article-title":"Human Norovirus Interactions with Histo-Blood Group Antigens and Human Milk Oligosaccharides","volume":"90","author":"Schroten","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11603","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.21.11603-11615.2003","article-title":"The 3\u2032 End of Norwalk Virus mRNA Contains Determinants That Regulate the Expression and Stability of the Viral Capsid Protein VP1: A Novel Function for the VP2 Protein","volume":"77","author":"Crawford","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4818","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03508-12","article-title":"Norwalk Virus Minor Capsid Protein VP2 Associates within the VP1 Shell Domain","volume":"87","author":"Vongpunsawad","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6714","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.11.6714-6722.2005","article-title":"Norovirus and Histo-Blood Group Antigens: Demonstration of a Wide Spectrum of Strain Specificities and Classification of Two Major Binding Groups among Multiple Binding Patterns","volume":"79","author":"Huang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00961","article-title":"Human Norovirus Proteins: Implications in the Replicative Cycle, Pathogenesis, and the Host Immune Response","volume":"11","author":"Carvajal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2015.11.005","article-title":"Norovirus Mechanisms of Immune Antagonism","volume":"16","author":"Roth","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1107.041273","article-title":"Norovirus recombination in ORF1\/ORF2 overlap","volume":"11","author":"Bull","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6527","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.66.11.6527-6532.1992","article-title":"Expression, self-assembly, and antigenicity of the Norwalk virus capsid protein","volume":"66","author":"Jiang","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mallory, M.L., Lindesmith, L.C., Graham, R.L., and Baric, R.S. (2019). GII.4 Human Norovirus: Surveying the Antigenic Landscape. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11020177"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.02.007","article-title":"Virus entry: Open sesame","volume":"124","author":"Marsh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.059634-0","article-title":"GoodfellowG Norovirus gene expression and replication","volume":"95","author":"Thorne","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graziano, V.R., Wei, J., and Wilen, C.B. (2019). Norovirus attachment and entry. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11060495"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/nm860","article-title":"Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection","volume":"9","author":"Lindesmith","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nordgren, J., and Svensson, L. (2019). Genetic Susceptibility to Human Norovirus Infection: An Update. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11030226"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4632","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.270.9.4632","article-title":"Molecular Cloning of a Human Genomic Region Containing the H Blood Group \u03b1(1,2)Fucosyltransferase Gene and Two H Locus-related DNA Restriction Fragments: Isolation of A Candidate for the Human Secretor Blood Group Locus","volume":"270","author":"Rouquier","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhar, S., and Jones, M.K. (2019). In Vitro Replication of Human Norovirus. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11060547"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0085522","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.00855-22","article-title":"Human Norovirus Efficiently Replicates in Differentiated 3D-Human Intestinal Enteroids","volume":"23","author":"Mirabelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1951","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2012-09-435057","article-title":"The CD300 molecules: An emerging family of regulators of the immune system","volume":"121","author":"Borrego","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.066753-0","article-title":"Newly isolated mAbs broaden the neutralizing epitope in murine norovirus","volume":"95","author":"Kolawole","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaf1220","article-title":"Discovery of a proteinaceous cellular receptor for a norovirus","volume":"353","author":"Orchard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wobus, C.E., Karst, S.M., Thackray, L.B., Chang, K.O., Sosnovtsev, S.V., Belliot, G., Krug, A., Mackenzie, J.M., Green, K.Y., and Virgin IV, H.W. (2004). Replication of Norovirus in cell culture reveals a tropism for dendritic cells and macrophages. PLoS Biol., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0020432"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25546","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1903797116","article-title":"The Justinianic Plague: An inconsequential pandemic?","volume":"116","author":"Mordechai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2006.06.006","article-title":"Stable expression of a Norwalk virus RNA replicon in a human hepatoma cell line","volume":"353","author":"Chang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virol"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.016717-0","article-title":"Murine norovirus-1 cell entry is mediated through a non-clathrin-, non-caveolae-, dynamin- And cholesterol-dependent pathway","volume":"91","author":"Gerondopoulos","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6163","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00331-10","article-title":"Endocytosis of Murine Norovirus 1 into Murine Macrophages Is Dependent on Dynamin II and Cholesterol","volume":"84","author":"Perry","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2852","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/cdg251","article-title":"The genome-linked protein VPg of the Norwalk virus binds eIF3, suggesting its role in translation initiation complex recruitment","volume":"22","author":"Daughenbaugh","year":"2003","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400510","article-title":"Calicivirus translation initiation requires an interaction between VPg and eIF4E","volume":"6","author":"Goodfellow","year":"2005","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"278","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms for Norovirus Genome Replication","volume":"23","author":"Yunus","year":"2021","journal-title":"Norovirus"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1086\/338365","article-title":"A Predominant Role for Norwalk-like Viruses as Agents of Epidemic Gastroenteritis in Maryland Nursing Homes for the Elderly","volume":"185","author":"Green","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7060","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02195-05","article-title":"Protein-Primed and De Novo Initiation of RNA Synthesis by Norovirus 3D pol","volume":"80","author":"Rohayem","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10138","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01208-12","article-title":"Norovirus RNA synthesis is modulated by an interaction between the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and the major capsid protein, VP1","volume":"86","author":"Yunus","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2530","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkn096","article-title":"Bioinformatic and functional analysis of RNA secondary structure elements among different genera of human and animal caliciviruses","volume":"36","author":"Simmonds","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25315","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M602230200","article-title":"Caliciviruses differ in their functional requirements for eIF4F components","volume":"281","author":"Chaudhry","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12238","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01489-07","article-title":"Norwalk virus RNA is infectious in mammalian cells","volume":"81","author":"Guix","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13027","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06191-11","article-title":"VPg-Primed RNA Synthesis of Norovirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerases by Using a Novel Cell-Based Assay","volume":"85","author":"Goodfellow","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4012","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.7.4012-4024.2005","article-title":"Feline Calicivirus VP2 Is Essential for the Production of Infectious Virions","volume":"79","author":"Sosnovtsev","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s007050050289","article-title":"Programmed cell death in the pathogenesis of rabbit hemorrhagic disease","volume":"143","author":"Alonso","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1702(03)00115-1","article-title":"Feline calicivirus replication induces apoptosis in cultured cells","volume":"94","author":"Sosnovtsev","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3647","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02028-08","article-title":"Apoptosis in Murine Norovirus-Infected RAW264.7 Cells Is Associated with Downregulation of Survivin","volume":"83","author":"Bok","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022, October 28). Norovirus Outbreak Linked to Raw Oysters from British Columbia\u2014Norovirus CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/norovirus\/outbreaks\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (2022, November 01). Vital Signs: Foodborne Norovirus Outbreaks\u2014United States, 2009\u20132012, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/mm63223.htm."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859090","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/859090","article-title":"Influenza virus aerosols in the air and their infectiousness","volume":"2014","author":"Nikitin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Virol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshall, J.A., and Bruggink, L.D. (2011). The Dynamics of Norovirus Outbreak Epidemics: Recent Insights. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8041141"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2140","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-70.9.2140","article-title":"Norovirus Recognizes Histo-Blood Group Antigens on Gastrointestinal Cells of Clams, Mussels, and Oysters: A Possible Mechanism of Bioaccumulation","volume":"70","author":"Tian","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Food. Prot."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"CDC (2022, November 01). When and How to Wash Your Hands|Handwashing|CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/handwashing\/when-how-handwashing.html."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-017-9279-3","article-title":"Critical Review on the Public Health Impact of Norovirus Contamination in Shellfish and the Environment: A UK Perspective","volume":"9","author":"Hassard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Environ. Virol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1086\/341408","article-title":"Natural history of human Calicivirus infection: A prospective cohort study","volume":"35","author":"Rockx","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1776","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0804575","article-title":"Norovirus Gastroenteritis","volume":"361","author":"Glass","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00075-14","article-title":"Norovirus","volume":"28","author":"Robilotti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000247102.04997.e0","article-title":"Prolonged norovirus shedding in infants \u22646 months of age with gastroenteritis","volume":"26","author":"Murata","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cis372","article-title":"Severe outcomes are associated with genogroup 2 genotype 4 norovirus outbreaks: A systematic literature review","volume":"55","author":"Desai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cliln. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jis415","article-title":"Mortality attributable to 9 common infections: Significant effect of influenza A, respiratory syncytial virus, influenza B, norovirus, and parainfluenza in elderly persons","volume":"206","author":"Meijer","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1017\/S095925981300004X","article-title":"\u2018It\u2019s just a virus\u2019\u2014Viral illness in older people: Prevention and management","volume":"23","author":"Payne","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Clin. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1525","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1001","article-title":"Characteristics of GII.4 Norovirus Versus Other Genotypes in Sporadic Pediatric Infections in Davidson County, Tennessee, USA","volume":"73","author":"Haddadin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2742","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201545512","article-title":"Norovirus immunology: Of mice and mechanisms","volume":"45","author":"Newman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-11-127","article-title":"Pattern of activation of human antigen presenting cells by genotype GII.4 norovirus virus-like particles","volume":"11","author":"Ponterio","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.12681","article-title":"Human norovirus infection and the acute serum cytokine response","volume":"182","author":"Newman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.33.1.64-71.1995","article-title":"Detection and differentiation of antigenically distinct small round-structured viruses (Norwalk-like viruses) by reverse transcription-PCR and southern hybridization","volume":"33","author":"Ando","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s007050050020","article-title":"Genetic polymorphism across regions of the three open reading frames of \u201cNorwalk-like viruses\u201d","volume":"145","author":"Green","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.11.015","article-title":"Norovirus classification and proposed strain nomenclature","volume":"346","author":"Zheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virol"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01535-14","article-title":"Advances in laboratory methods for detection and typing of norovirus","volume":"53","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001318","article-title":"Updated classification of norovirus genogroups and genotypes","volume":"100","author":"Chhabra","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5104","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02346-05","article-title":"Virgin Murine Norovirus: A Model System To Study Norovirus Biology and Pathogenesis","volume":"80","author":"Wobus","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2208","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00455-17","article-title":"Genetic and Epidemiologic Trends of Norovirus Outbreaks in the United States from 2013 2016 Emergence of Novel GII.4 Recombinant Viruses","volume":"55","author":"Cannon","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.858245","article-title":"Epidemiological Impact of GII.17 Human Noroviruses Associated With Attachment to Enterocytes","volume":"13","author":"Estienney","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2011.01.002","article-title":"Mechanisms of GII.4 norovirus evolution","volume":"19","author":"Bull","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tren. Microbil."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6270","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03464-12","article-title":"Recombination within the Pandemic Norovirus GII.4 Lineage","volume":"87","author":"Eden","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, Y., Wang, W.B., Zhang, J., Hou, J., Tang, F., Zhang, X.F., Du, L.F., Su, J.G., and Li, Q.M. (2021). Evolution of the interactions between GII.4 noroviruses and histo-blood group antigens: Insights from experimental and computational studies. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009745"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bull, R.A., Eden, J.S., Rawlinson, W.D., and White, P.A. (2010). Rapid Evolution of Pandemic Noroviruses of the GII.4 Lineage. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/19042899-9f1b-4ccc-b13e-2a8faf19421b"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00375","article-title":"Intra-Host Evolution of Norovirus GII.4 in a Chronic Infected Patient With Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"820","article-title":"An outbreak of norovirus infection in a bone marrow transplant unit","volume":"41","author":"Doshi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5850","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-12-325886","article-title":"Norovirus gastroenteritis causes severe and lethal complications after chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation","volume":"117","author":"Schwartz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1086\/314783","article-title":"Identification of a distinct common strain of \u201cNorwalk-like viruses\u201d having a global distribution","volume":"179","author":"Noel","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.14.102","article-title":"Noroviruses: Epidemiology, immunity and prospects for prevention","volume":"10","author":"Pringle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)15641-9","article-title":"Increase in viral gastroenteritis outbreaks in Europe and epidemic spread of new norovirus variant","volume":"363","author":"Lopman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.44.2.327-333.2006","article-title":"Emergence of a new norovirus genotype II.4 variant associated with global outbreaks of gastroenteritis","volume":"44","author":"Bull","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgast-2020-000377","article-title":"Estimating deaths from foodborne disease in the UK for 11 key pathogens","volume":"7","author":"Holland","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open Gastro"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.47102\/annals-acadmedsg.202043","article-title":"Mental Health Strategies to Combat the Psychological Impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Beyond Paranoia and Panic","volume":"49","author":"Cyrus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Acad. Med. Singap."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2021.03.006","article-title":"Impact of COVID-19 on national surveillance of norovirus in England and potential risk of increased disease activity in 2021","volume":"112","author":"Douglas","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2017.08.025","article-title":"Efficacy of ethanol against viruses in hand disinfection","volume":"98","author":"Kampf","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karst, S.M. (2010). Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses. Viruses, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/v2030748"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70767-4","article-title":"Global prevalence of norovirus in cases of gastroenteritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Ahmed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2015.01.011","article-title":"Burden of norovirus in healthcare facilities and strategies for outbreak control","volume":"89","author":"Kambhampati","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jis498","article-title":"Prevalence and clinical impact of norovirus fecal shedding in children with inherited immune deficiencies","volume":"206","author":"Frange","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.02.012","article-title":"Treatment of norovirus infections: Moving antivirals from the bench to the bedside","volume":"105","author":"Kaufman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.23774","article-title":"Norovirus infection in immunocompromised children and children with hospital-acquired acute gastroenteritis","volume":"86","author":"Munir","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003060","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2013-003060","article-title":"Does spatial proximity drive norovirus transmission during outbreaks in hospitals?","volume":"3","author":"Harris","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1086\/520666","article-title":"Outbreak management and implications of a nosocomial norovirus outbreak","volume":"45","author":"Johnston","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir971","article-title":"Nosocomial transmission of norovirus is mainly caused by symptomatic cases","volume":"54","author":"Sukhrie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2012.09.040","article-title":"The potential economic value of a human norovirus vaccine for the United States","volume":"30","author":"Bartsch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Health Protection Agency (2022, October 24). Guidelines for the Management of Norovirus Outbreaks in Acute and Community Health and Social Care Settings, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/322943\/Guidance_for_managing_norovirus_outbreaks_in_healthcare_settings.pdf."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1086\/662025","article-title":"Guideline for the prevention and control of norovirus gastroenteritis outbreaks in healthcare settings","volume":"32","author":"Maccannell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feliciano, L., Li, J., Lee, J., and Pascall, M.A. (2012). Efficacies of Sodium Hypochlorite and Quaternary Ammonium Sanitizers for Reduction of Norovirus and Selected Bacteria during Ware-Washing Operations. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050273"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01729-09","article-title":"Effectiveness of Liquid Soap and Hand Sanitizer against Norwalk Virus on Contaminated Hands","volume":"76","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4829","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00174-11","article-title":"Enhanced Removal of a Human Norovirus Surrogate from Fresh Vegetables and Fruits by a Combination of Surfactants and Sanitizers","volume":"77","author":"Predmore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindesmith, L.C., Ferris, M.T., Mullan, C.W., Ferreira, J., Debbink, K., Swanstrom, J., Richardson, C., Goodwin, R.R., Baehner, F., and Mendelman, P.M. (2015). Broad blockade antibody responses in human volunteers after immunization with a multivalent norovirus VLP candidate vaccine: Immunological analyses from a phase I clinical trial. PLoS Med., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001807"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00516-14","article-title":"Experimental human infection with norwalk virus elicits a surrogate neutralizing antibody response with cross-genogroup activity","volume":"22","author":"Atmar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1132745","article-title":"Epochal evolution shapes the phylodynamics of interpandemic influenza a (H3N2) in humans","volume":"314","author":"Koelle","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1101245","article-title":"Norovirus Vaccine against Experimental Human Norwalk Virus Illness","volume":"365","author":"Atmar","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, M. (2021). Norovirus Vaccines: Current Clinical Development and Challenges. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10121641"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.3109\/13880209.2013.874533","article-title":"Folate-modified doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles for tumor-targeted therapy","volume":"14","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.07.069","article-title":"Efficacy of an intramuscular bivalent norovirus GI.1\/GII.4 virus-like particle vaccine candidate in healthy US adults","volume":"38","author":"Sherwood","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/17460441.2016.1178231","article-title":"Current Tools for Norovirus Drug Discovery","volume":"11","author":"Weerasekara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Descov."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00627-06","article-title":"Library screen for inhibitors targeting norovirus binding to histo-blood group antigen receptors","volume":"51","author":"Feng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"Takeda (2022, November 02). Long-Term Immunogenicity of the Norovirus GI.1\/GII.4 Bivalent Virus-like Particle (VLP) Vaccine (NoV Vaccine) in Adults. Clinicaltrials, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT03039790h."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"Vaxart (2022, November 02). Ph 1b: Safety & Immunogenicity of Ad5 Based Oral Norovirus Vaccine (VXA-NVV-104). Clinicaltrials, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04854746h."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"National Vaccine Serum Institute, C (2022, November 01). Clinical Trial to Evaluate the Recombinant Norovirus Bivalent (GI. 1\/GII. 4) Vaccine (Hansenula Polymorpha). Clinicaltrials, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04941261h."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"Takeda (2022, October 31). Safety and Immunogenicity of Norovirus GI.1\/GII.4 Bivalent Virus-Like Particle Vaccine in an Elderly Population. Clinicaltrials, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02661490."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/12\/2811\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:42:33Z","timestamp":1760146953000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/12\/2811"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v14122811"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14122811","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]]}}}