{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:01:44Z","timestamp":1760148104129,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]],"date-time":"2023-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679961600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIH\/NINDS","award":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"NIH\/NICHD","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Presbyterian Health Foundation [PHF]","award":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"]}]},{"name":"Harold Hamm Diabetes Center [HHDC]","award":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"]}]},{"name":"Office of the Vice President for Research at OUHSC","award":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS1037720","R21 HD096240","Team Science Grants","Novel Pilot Grant"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The mucociliary airway epithelium lines the human airways and is the primary site of host-environmental interactions in the lung. Following virus infection, airway epithelial cells initiate an innate immune response to suppress virus replication. Therefore, defining the virus-host interactions of the mucociliary airway epithelium is critical for understanding the mechanisms that regulate virus infection, including Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Non-human primates (NHP) are closely related to humans and provide a model to study human disease. However, ethical considerations and high costs can restrict the use of in vivo NHP models. Therefore, there is a need to develop in vitro NHP models of human respiratory virus infection that would allow for rapidly characterizing virus tropism and the suitability of specific NHP species to model human infection. Using the olive baboon (Papio anubis), we have developed methodologies for the isolation, in vitro expansion, cryopreservation, and mucociliary differentiation of primary fetal baboon tracheal epithelial cells (FBTECs). Furthermore, we demonstrate that in vitro differentiated FBTECs are permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection and produce a potent host innate-immune response. In summary, we have developed an in vitro NHP model that provides a platform for the study of SARS-CoV-2 infection and other human respiratory viruses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15040862","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]],"date-time":"2023-03-28T02:58:21Z","timestamp":1679972301000},"page":"862","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Isolation and In Vitro Differentiation of Primary Fetal Baboon Tracheal Epithelial Cells for the Study of SARS-CoV-2 Host-Virus Interactions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Bharathiraja","family":"Subramaniyan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sunam","family":"Gurung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manish","family":"Bodas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew R.","family":"Moore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jason L.","family":"Larabee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Darlene","family":"Reuter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Constantin","family":"Georgescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genes & Human Disease Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan D.","family":"Wren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genes & Human Disease Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dean A.","family":"Myers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9894-8243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James F.","family":"Papin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0010-8444","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew S.","family":"Walters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-physiol-041520-092904","article-title":"Epithelial Stem and Progenitor Cells in Lung Repair and Regeneration","volume":"83","author":"Alysandratos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2020.03.009","article-title":"The Cellular and Physiological Basis for Lung Repair and Regeneration: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"26","author":"Basil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Stem. Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2019.11.006","article-title":"Lung regeneration: A tale of mice and men","volume":"100","author":"Basil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-020-00370-7","article-title":"Cellular and functional heterogeneity of the airway epithelium","volume":"14","author":"Davis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mucosal. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2014.07.012","article-title":"Repair and regeneration of the respiratory system: Complexity, plasticity, and mechanisms of lung stem cell function","volume":"15","author":"Hogan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Stem. Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C675","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00036.2020","article-title":"Stem cells and lung regeneration","volume":"319","author":"Parekh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1242\/dev.143784","article-title":"Plasticity in the lung: Making and breaking cell identity","volume":"144","author":"Tata","year":"2017","journal-title":"Development"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00001.2018","article-title":"Building and Regenerating the Lung Cell by Cell","volume":"99","author":"Whitsett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-019-0141-3","article-title":"Cellular crosstalk in the development and regeneration of the respiratory system","volume":"20","author":"Zepp","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barnes, M.V.C., Openshaw, P.J.M., and Thwaites, R.S. (2022). Mucosal Immune Responses to Respiratory Syncytial Virus. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11071153"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2018-0247TR","article-title":"How the Respiratory Epithelium Senses and Reacts to Influenza Virus","volume":"60","author":"Benam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2021-217561","article-title":"Respiratory epithelial cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19","volume":"77","author":"Bridges","year":"2022","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00277","article-title":"Rhinovirus and Innate Immune Function of Airway Epithelium","volume":"10","author":"Ganjian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glaser, L., Coulter, P.J., Shields, M., Touzelet, O., Power, U.F., and Broadbent, L. (2019). Airway Epithelial Derived Cytokines and Chemokines and Their Role in the Immune Response to Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection. Pathogens, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8030106"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00713-0","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis","volume":"20","author":"Lamers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2022, November 11). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available online: https:\/\/covid19.who.int\/."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e41","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2006141","article-title":"Critical Supply Shortages\u2014The Need for Ventilators and Personal Protective Equipment during the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"382","author":"Ranney","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2020.11.062","article-title":"A Closer Look Into Global Hospital Beds Capacity and Resource Shortages During the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"260","author":"Sutherland","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bestion, E., Halfon, P., Mezouar, S., and Mege, J.L. (2022). Cell and Animal Models for SARS-CoV-2 Research. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14071507"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.98","article-title":"Animal models for SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathology","volume":"2","author":"Bi","year":"2021","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"792584","article-title":"Experimental Models of COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Paidas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2020.11.009","article-title":"The Organoid Platform: Promises and Challenges as Tools in the Fight against COVID-19","volume":"16","author":"Geurts","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem. Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heinen, N., Klohn, M., Steinmann, E., and Pfaender, S. (2021). In Vitro Lung Models and Their Application to Study SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis and Disease. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13050792"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s12275-022-2033-z","article-title":"Transmissibility and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 variants in animal models","volume":"60","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2022.105345","article-title":"Animal models for studying coronavirus infections and developing antiviral agents and vaccines","volume":"203","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antiviral. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munoz-Fontela, C., Widerspick, L., Albrecht, R.A., Beer, M., Carroll, M.W., de Wit, E., Diamond, M.S., Dowling, W.E., Funnell, S.G.P., and Garcia-Sastre, A. (2022). Advances and gaps in SARS-CoV-2 infection models. PLoS Pathog., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1010161"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943783","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.943783","article-title":"Potential mouse models of coronavirus-related immune injury","volume":"13","author":"Nan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pharmtox-121120-012309","article-title":"Experimental Models of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Possible Platforms to Study COVID-19 Pathogenesis and Potential Treatments","volume":"62","author":"Pandamooz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, L., Gao, L., Wu, X., Fan, Y., Liu, M., Chen, J., Song, J., Kong, J., Dong, Y., and Li, B. (2022). Lung Organoids as Model to Study SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11172758"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1002\/ame2.12278","article-title":"Characteristics of animal models for COVID-19","volume":"5","author":"Qi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Animal. Model. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosa, R.B., Dantas, W.M., do Nascimento, J.C.F., da Silva, M.V., de Oliveira, R.N., and Pena, L.J. (2021). In Vitro and In Vivo Models for Studying SARS-CoV-2, the Etiological Agent Responsible for COVID-19 Pandemic. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030379"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dmm049060","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.049060","article-title":"Advancing lung organoids for COVID-19 research","volume":"14","author":"Lamers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993754","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.993754","article-title":"Prospects of animal models and their application in studies on adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"13","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907406","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.907406","article-title":"Animal Models for COVID-19 Therapeutic Development: Where We Are and Where We Need to Go","volume":"13","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2021.04.010","article-title":"Non-human primate models of human respiratory infections","volume":"135","author":"Lemaitre","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar\/ilx030","article-title":"Nonhuman Primate Models of Respiratory Disease: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"58","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"ILAR J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1177\/01926233211072767","article-title":"Modeling SARS-CoV-2: Comparative Pathology in Rhesus Macaque and Golden Syrian Hamster Models","volume":"50","author":"Choudhary","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartman, A.L., Nambulli, S., McMillen, C.M., White, A.G., Tilston-Lunel, N.L., Albe, J.R., Cottle, E., Dunn, M.D., Frye, L.J., and Gilliland, T.H. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 infection of African green monkeys results in mild respiratory disease discernible by PET\/CT imaging and shedding of infectious virus from both respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. PLoS Pathog., 16.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.06.20.137687"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00269-6","article-title":"Comparison of nonhuman primates identified the suitable model for COVID-19","volume":"5","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal. Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb7314","article-title":"Comparative pathogenesis of COVID-19, MERS, and SARS in a nonhuman primate model","volume":"368","author":"Rockx","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-00841-4","article-title":"Responses to acute infection with SARS-CoV-2 in the lungs of rhesus macaques, baboons and marmosets","volume":"6","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-00835-8","article-title":"Establishment of an African green monkey model for COVID-19 and protection against re-infection","volume":"22","author":"Woolsey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/ame2.12108","article-title":"Age-related rhesus macaque models of COVID-19","volume":"3","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Model. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2021.12.001","article-title":"Medical imaging of pulmonary disease in SARS-CoV-2-exposed non-human primates","volume":"28","author":"Stammes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alfi, O., Hamdan, M., Wald, O., Yakirevitch, A., Wandel, O., Oiknine-Djian, E., Gvili, B., Knoller, H., Rozendorn, N., and Golan Berman, H. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Induces Enhanced Mucosal Interferon Response Compared to other Variants of Concern, Associated with Restricted Replication in Human Lung Tissues. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14071583"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-022-00422-1","article-title":"A bipotential organoid model of respiratory epithelium recapitulates high infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant","volume":"8","author":"Chiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04479-6","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant replication in human bronchus and lung ex vivo","volume":"603","author":"Hui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-022-04068-3","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant is attenuated for replication in a polarized human lung epithelial cell model","volume":"5","author":"Mache","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6972","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-10763-2","article-title":"Airway epithelial interferon response to SARS-CoV-2 is inferior to rhinovirus and heterologous rhinovirus infection suppresses SARS-CoV-2 replication","volume":"12","author":"Vanderwall","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2020-0302OC","article-title":"Cigarette Smoke Activates NOTCH3 to Promote Goblet Cell Differentiation in Human Airway Epithelial Cells","volume":"64","author":"Bodas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bts635","article-title":"STAR: Ultrafast universal RNA-seq aligner","volume":"29","author":"Dobin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btt656","article-title":"featureCounts: An efficient general purpose program for assigning sequence reads to genomic features","volume":"30","author":"Liao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R29","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2014-15-2-r29","article-title":"Voom: Precision weights unlock linear model analysis tools for RNA-seq read counts","volume":"15","author":"Law","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1007\/s12015-016-9656-6","article-title":"JAG1-Mediated Notch Signaling Regulates Secretory Cell Differentiation of the Human Airway Epithelium","volume":"12","author":"Gomi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stem. Cell Rev. Rep."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramaniyan, B., Larabee, J.L., Bodas, M., Moore, A.R., Burgett, A.W.G., Myers, D.A., Georgescu, C., Wren, J.D., Papin, J.F., and Walters, M.S. (2021). Characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 Host Response in Primary Human Airway Epithelial Cells from Aged Individuals. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081603"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645858","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.645858","article-title":"Implications for Extracellular Matrix Interactions With Human Lung Basal Stem Cells in Lung Development, Disease, and Airway Modeling","volume":"12","author":"Busch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.006031","article-title":"Airway basal stem cells: A perspective on their roles in epithelial homeostasis and remodeling","volume":"3","author":"Rock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hackett, N.R., Shaykhiev, R., Walters, M.S., Wang, R., Zwick, R.K., Ferris, B., Witover, B., Salit, J., and Crystal, R.G. (2011). The human airway epithelial basal cell transcriptome. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0018378"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryan, D.M., Vincent, T.L., Salit, J., Walters, M.S., Agosto-Perez, F., Shaykhiev, R., Strulovici-Barel, Y., Downey, R.J., Buro-Auriemma, L.J., and Staudt, M.R. (2014). Smoking dysregulates the human airway basal cell transcriptome at COPD risk locus 19q13.2. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0088051"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201406-1167LE","article-title":"Airway Basal stem\/progenitor cells have diminished capacity to regenerate airway epithelium in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"190","author":"Staudt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00468-6","article-title":"Coronavirus biology and replication: Implications for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"19","author":"Kratzel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-021-00958-0","article-title":"Cellular host factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"6","author":"Baggen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-021-01869-2","article-title":"Host proviral and antiviral factors for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"57","author":"Lv","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04474-x","article-title":"Altered TMPRSS2 usage by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron impacts infectivity and fusogenicity","volume":"603","author":"Meng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e108944","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.2021108944","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Alpha, Beta, and Delta variants display enhanced Spike-mediated syncytia formation","volume":"40","author":"Rajah","year":"2021","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04411-y","article-title":"Rapid epidemic expansion of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in southern Africa","volume":"603","author":"Viana","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03570-8","article-title":"COVID-19 tissue atlases reveal SARS-CoV-2 pathology and cellular targets","volume":"595","author":"Delorey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202005-1885OC","article-title":"Uncontrolled Innate and Impaired Adaptive Immune Responses in Patients with COVID-19 Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome","volume":"202","author":"Hue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202005-1583OC","article-title":"Characterization of the Inflammatory Response to Severe COVID-19 Illness","volume":"202","author":"McElvaney","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Broadbent, L., Bamford, C.G.G., Lopez Campos, G., Manzoor, S., Courtney, D., Ali, A., Touzelet, O., McCaughey, C., Mills, K., and Power, U.F. (2022). An endogenously activated antiviral state restricts SARS-CoV-2 infection in differentiated primary airway epithelial cells. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0266412"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109055","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection of primary human lung epithelium for COVID-19 modeling and drug discovery","volume":"35","author":"Mulay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2020.11.010","article-title":"Direct Exposure to SARS-CoV-2 and Cigarette Smoke Increases Infection Severity and Alters the Stem Cell-Derived Airway Repair Response","volume":"27","author":"Purkayastha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Stem. Cell"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-01894-z","article-title":"The US is boosting funding for research monkeys in the wake of COVID","volume":"595","author":"Subbaraman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.026","article-title":"Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19","volume":"181","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00985-20","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00985-20","article-title":"Type I and Type III Interferons Restrict SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Human Airway Epithelial Cultures","volume":"94","author":"Vanderheiden","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00186-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00186-18","article-title":"Translational Model of Zika Virus Disease in Baboons","volume":"92","author":"Gurung","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurung, S., Reuter, D., Norris, A., Dubois, M., Maxted, M., Singleton, K., Castillo-Castrejon, M., Papin, J.F., and Myers, D.A. (2022). Early and mid-gestation Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in the olive baboon (Papio anubis) leads to fetal CNS pathology by term gestation. PLoS Pathog., 18.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.02.23.481575"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2021.06.013","article-title":"Intranasal and intrapulmonary vaccination with an M protein-deficient respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine improves clinical signs and reduces viral replication in infant baboons after an RSV challenge infection","volume":"39","author":"Ivanov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L530","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00173.2012","article-title":"Infant baboons infected with respiratory syncytial virus develop clinical and pathological changes that parallel those of human infants","volume":"304","author":"Papin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung. Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01434-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01434-19","article-title":"Zika Virus Infection, Reproductive Organ Targeting, and Semen Transmission in the Male Olive Baboon","volume":"94","author":"Peregrine","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S114","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-4453(17)30201-3","article-title":"Pertussis disease and transmission and host responses: Insights from the baboon model of pertussis","volume":"74","author":"Pinto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00511-18","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00511-18","article-title":"Histopathology of Bordetella pertussis in the Baboon Model","volume":"86","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24620","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2012358117","article-title":"Reduced development of COVID-19 in children reveals molecular checkpoints gating pathogenesis illuminating potential therapeutics","volume":"117","author":"Steinman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2020.4573","article-title":"Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Children and Adolescents Compared With Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"175","author":"Viner","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/15\/4\/862\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:04:43Z","timestamp":1760123083000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/15\/4\/862"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["v15040862"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v15040862","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-4915"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]]}}}