{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T00:42:37Z","timestamp":1792629757874,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]],"date-time":"2023-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679961600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\u03a4he COVID-19 pandemic highly impacted the circulation, seasonality, and morbidity burden of several respiratory viruses. We reviewed published cases of SARS-CoV-2 and respiratory virus co-infections as of 12 April 2022. SARS-CoV-2 and influenza co-infections were reported almost exclusively during the first pandemic wave. It is possible that the overall incidence of SARS-CoV-2 co-infections is higher because of the paucity of co-testing for respiratory viruses during the first pandemic waves when mild cases might have been missed. Animal models indicate severe lung pathology and high fatality; nevertheless, the available literature is largely inconclusive regarding the clinical course and prognosis of co-infected patients. Animal models also indicate the importance of considering the sequence timing of each respiratory virus infection; however, there is no such information in reported human cases. Given the differences between 2020 and 2023 in terms of epidemiology and availability of vaccines and specific treatment against COVID-19, it is rational not to extrapolate these early findings to present times. It is expected that the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and respiratory virus co-infections will evolve in the upcoming seasons. Multiplex real-time PCR-based assays have been developed in the past two years and should be used to increase diagnostic and infection control capacity, and also for surveillance purposes. Given that COVID-19 and influenza share the same high-risk groups, it is essential that the latter get vaccinated against both viruses. Further studies are needed to elucidate how SARS-CoV-2 and respiratory virus co-infections will be shaped in the upcoming years, in terms of impact and prognosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15040865","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]],"date-time":"2023-03-28T06:15:15Z","timestamp":1679984115000},"page":"865","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":89,"title":["COVID-19 and Respiratory Virus Co-Infections: A Systematic Review of the Literature"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0264-3547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helena C.","family":"Maltezou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Directorate of Research, Studies and Documentation, National Public Health Organization, 15123 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amalia","family":"Papanikolopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Third Department of Internal Medicine, Sotiria General Hospital for Thoracic Diseases, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, Sotiria General Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Vassiliu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nafplion General Hospital, 21100 Nafplion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kalliopi","family":"Theodoridou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Andreas Sygros Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 16121 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgia","family":"Nikolopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hepatitides, National Public Health Organization, 15123 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6955-3453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikolaos V.","family":"Sipsas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathophysiology Department, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2021.6734","article-title":"Leading Causes of Death Among Adults Aged 25 to 44 Years by Race and Ethnicity in Texas During the COVID-19 Pandemic, March to December 2020","volume":"182","author":"Faust","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. 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