{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T18:47:41Z","timestamp":1790189261719,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,17]],"date-time":"2023-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686960000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"GHSA","award":["OSRO\/GLO\/507\/USA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OSRO\/GLO\/507\/USA"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In 2021, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and global food insecurity, the Nigerian poultry sector was exposed to the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and its economic challenges. Between 2021 and 2022, HPAI caused 467 outbreaks reported in 31 of the 37 administrative regions in Nigeria. In this study, we characterized the genomes of 97 influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5N1, H5N2, and H5N8, which were identified in different agro-ecological zones and farms during the 2021\u20132022 epidemic. The phylogenetic analysis of the HA genes showed a widespread distribution of the H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b and similarity with the HPAI H5Nx viruses that have been detected in Europe since late 2020. The topology of the phylogenetic trees indicated the occurrence of several independent introductions of the virus into the country, followed by a regional evolution of the virus that was most probably linked to its persistent circulation in West African territories. Additional evidence of the evolutionary potential of the HPAI viruses circulating in this region is the identification in this study of a putative H5N1\/H9N2 reassortant virus in a mixed-species commercial poultry farm. Our data confirm Nigeria as a crucial hotspot for HPAI virus introduction from the Eurasian territories and reveal a dynamic pattern of avian influenza virus evolution within the Nigerian poultry population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15061387","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,19]],"date-time":"2023-06-19T01:31:14Z","timestamp":1687138274000},"page":"1387","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["The Evolution of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A (H5) in Poultry in Nigeria, 2021\u20132022"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7003-7528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clement","family":"Meseko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Laboratory for Animal Influenza & Transboundary Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom 930101, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adelaide","family":"Milani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1582-5956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bitrus","family":"Inuwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Laboratory for Animal Influenza & Transboundary Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom 930101, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chinonyerem","family":"Chinyere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Laboratory for Animal Influenza & Transboundary Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom 930101, 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Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5812-6760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Palumbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9566-6531","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bianca","family":"Zecchin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1276-2710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Bonfante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Maniero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ang\u00e9lique","family":"Angot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Health Service (NSAH), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN), 00198 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mamadou","family":"Niang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Office for Africa (RAF), Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN), Accra 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8213-5472","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Fusaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9233-5737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Gobbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Calogero","family":"Terregino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences (BSBIO), 35128 Padova, 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