{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T04:30:08Z","timestamp":1787632208013,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,12]],"date-time":"2023-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689120000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>An enveloped double-stranded DNA monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a causative agent of the zoonotic viral disease, human monkeypox (HMPX). MPXV belongs to the genus Orthopoxviridae, a family of notorious smallpox viruses, and so it shares similar clinical pathophysiological features. The recent multicountry HMPX outbreak (May 2022 onwards) is recognized as an emerging global public health emergency by the World Health Organization, shunting its endemic status as opined over the past few decades. Re-emergence of HMPX raises concern to reassess the present clinical strategy and therapeutics as its outbreak evolves further. Keeping a check on these developments, here we provide insights into the HMPX epidemiology, pathophysiology, and clinical representation. Weighing on its early prevention, we reviewed the strategies that are being enrolled for HMPX diagnosis. In the line of expanded MPXV prevalence, we further reviewed its clinical management and the diverse employed preventive\/therapeutic strategies, including vaccines (JYNNEOS, ACAM2000, VIGIV) and antiviral drugs\/inhibitors (Tecovirimat, Cidofovir, Brincidofovir). Taken together, with a revised perspective of HMPX re-emergence, the present report summarizes new knowledge on its prevalence, pathology, and prevention strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15071533","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,12]],"date-time":"2023-07-12T00:50:41Z","timestamp":1689123041000},"page":"1533","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Clinical Strategies and Therapeutics for Human Monkeypox Virus: A Revised Perspective on Recent Outbreaks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Nilanjan","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Pharmacology Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0383-6925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leena","family":"Chacko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BioAnalytical Laboratory, Meso Scale Discovery, Rockville, MD 20850-3173, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jayalakshmi","family":"Vallamkondu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506004, Telangana, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1701-501X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanmoy","family":"Banerjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Pharmacology Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chandrima","family":"Sarkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Birbal","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Regional Station, Palampur 176061, Himachal Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8181-457X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajkumar Singh","family":"Kalra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, Graduate University (OIST), Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jasvinder Singh","family":"Bhatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Translational Medicine and Nanotherapeutics, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151001, Punjab, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramesh","family":"Kandimalla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Kakatiya Medical College, Warangal 506007, Telangana, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9085-4226","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saikat","family":"Dewanjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutson, C.L., Nakazawa, Y.J., Self, J., Olson, V.A., Regnery, R.L., Braden, Z., Weiss, S., Malekani, J., Jackson, E., and Tate, M. (2015). Laboratory investigations of African pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus) as a potential reservoir host species for monkeypox virus. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004013"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6","DOI":"10.1086\/595552","article-title":"Transmission of atypical varicella-zoster virus infections involving palm and sole manifestations in an area with monkeypox endemicity","volume":"48","author":"MacNeil","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2006.131329","article-title":"Fatal monkeypox in wild-living sooty mangabey, Cote d\u2019Ivoire, 2012","volume":"20","author":"Metzger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"593","article-title":"A human infection caused by monkeypox virus in Basankusu Territory, Democratic Republic of the Congo","volume":"46","author":"Ladnyj","year":"1972","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.73.428","article-title":"Extended interhuman transmission of monkeypox in a hospital community in the Republic of the Congo, 2003","volume":"73","author":"Learned","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1610.100713","article-title":"Human monkeypox outbreak caused by novel virus belonging to Congo Basin clade, Sudan, 2005","volume":"16","author":"Formenty","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bunge, E.M., Hoet, B., Chen, L., Lienert, F., Weidenthaler, H., Baer, L.R., and Steffen, R. (2022). The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010141"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.159.11.1022","article-title":"Transmission of monkeypox among persons exposed to infected prairie dogs in Indiana in 2003","volume":"159","author":"Kile","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"WHO (2022). Multi-Country Monkeypox Outbreak in Non-Endemic Countries."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Mathieu, E., Spooner, F., Dattani, S., Ritchie, H., and Roser, M. (2023, June 02). Mpox (monkeypox). Our World Data. Available online: https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/monkeypox."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200422","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.22.2200422","article-title":"Community transmission of monkeypox in the United Kingdom, April to May 2022","volume":"27","author":"Vivancos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.7326\/M22-2183","article-title":"Detection of Monkeypox Virus in Anorectal Swabs From Asymptomatic Men Who Have Sex With Men in a Sexually Transmitted Infection Screening Program in Paris, France","volume":"175","author":"Ferre","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imj.2022.07.001","article-title":"Preparedness for a monkeypox outbreak","volume":"1","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2002.130118","article-title":"Genomic variability of monkeypox virus among humans, Democratic Republic of the Congo","volume":"20","author":"Kugelman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10768","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15073-1","article-title":"Nanopore sequencing of a monkeypox virus strain isolated from a pustular lesion in the Central African Republic","volume":"12","author":"Vandenbogaert","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-022-01215-4","article-title":"Monkeypox: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment and prevention","volume":"7","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sereewit, J., Lieberman, N.A.P., Xie, H., Bakhash, S., Nunley, B.E., Chung, B., Mills, M.G., Roychoudhury, P., and Greninger, A.L. (2022). ORF-Interrupting Mutations in Monkeypox Virus Genomes from Washington and Ohio, 2022. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14112393"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2038","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msq088","article-title":"Using time-structured data to estimate evolutionary rates of double-stranded DNA viruses","volume":"27","author":"Firth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadeghpour, S., Khodaee, S., Rahnama, M., Rahimi, H., and Ebrahimi, D. (2021). Human APOBEC3 Variations and Viral Infection. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13071366"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1038\/s41576-022-00459-8","article-title":"Functions and consequences of AID\/APOBEC-mediated DNA and RNA deamination","volume":"23","author":"Pecori","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28036","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28036","article-title":"Genomic annotation and molecular evolution of monkeypox virus outbreak in 2022","volume":"95","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2011.11.007","article-title":"Poxvirus host cell entry","volume":"2","author":"Schmidt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laliberte, J.P., Weisberg, A.S., and Moss, B. (2011). The membrane fusion step of vaccinia virus entry is cooperatively mediated by multiple viral proteins and host cell components. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002446"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1159\/000322101","article-title":"Orthopox Viruses: Infections in Humans","volume":"37","author":"Pauli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transfus. Med. Hemother."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2008.07.009","article-title":"Vaccinia virus morphogenesis and dissemination","volume":"16","author":"Roberts","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit703","article-title":"Human monkeypox","volume":"58","author":"McCollum","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2019.03.001","article-title":"Human Monkeypox: Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics, Diagnosis, and Prevention","volume":"33","author":"Petersen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2207323","article-title":"Monkeypox Virus Infection in Humans across 16 Countries\u2014April\u2013June 2022","volume":"387","author":"Thornhill","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30294-4","article-title":"Outbreak of human monkeypox in Nigeria in 2017\u201318: A clinical and epidemiological report","volume":"19","author":"Aruna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osadebe, L., Hughes, C.M., Shongo Lushima, R., Kabamba, J., Nguete, B., Malekani, J., Pukuta, E., Karhemere, S., Muyembe Tamfum, J.J., and Wemakoy Okitolonda, E. (2017). Enhancing case definitions for surveillance of human monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of Congo. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005857"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-022-01874-z","article-title":"Clinical and virological features of first human monkeypox cases in Germany","volume":"51","author":"Noe","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2022.08.026","article-title":"Monkeypox: A focused narrative review for emergency medicine clinicians","volume":"61","author":"Long","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S3687","article-title":"ACAM2000: The new smallpox vaccine for United States Strategic National Stockpile","volume":"4","author":"Nalca","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2022.07.005","article-title":"Monkeypox outbreak in Madrid (Spain): Clinical and virological aspects","volume":"85","author":"Orviz","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1086\/498155","article-title":"Reemergence of monkeypox: Prevalence, diagnostics, and countermeasures","volume":"41","author":"Nalca","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e210","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa143","article-title":"Clinical Course and Outcome of Human Monkeypox in Nigeria","volume":"71","author":"Ogoina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogoina, D., Izibewule, J.H., Ogunleye, A., Ederiane, E., Anebonam, U., Neni, A., Oyeyemi, A., Etebu, E.N., and Ihekweazu, C. (2019). The 2017 human monkeypox outbreak in Nigeria-Report of outbreak experience and response in the Niger Delta University Teaching Hospital, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0214229"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2022.07.004","article-title":"Monkeypox: An emerging global threat during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"55","author":"Lai","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26473","article-title":"An Overview of Monkeypox Virus and Its Neuroinvasive Potential","volume":"92","author":"Pastula","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.292.10.1205","article-title":"Vaccination success rate and reaction profile with diluted and undiluted smallpox vaccine: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"292","author":"Talbot","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Fenner, F., Henderson, D.A., Arita, I., Jezek, Z., and Ladnyi, I.D. (1988). Smallpox and Its Eradication."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e798","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.798","article-title":"Repositioning potentials of smallpox vaccines and antiviral agents in monkeypox outbreak: A rapid review on comparative benefits and risks","volume":"5","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.10802","article-title":"Monkeypox in 2022-What Clinicians Need to Know","volume":"328","author":"Guarner","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e27902","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27902","article-title":"Re-emerging human monkeypox: A major public-health debacle","volume":"95","author":"Saxena","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7122e1","article-title":"Use of JYNNEOS (Smallpox and Monkeypox Vaccine, Live, Nonreplicating) for Preexposure Vaccination of Persons at Risk for Occupational Exposure to Orthopoxviruses: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices\u2014United States, 2022","volume":"71","author":"Rao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2007.10.017","article-title":"Clinical and immunologic responses to multiple doses of IMVAMUNE (Modified Vaccinia Ankara) followed by Dryvax challenge","volume":"25","author":"Frey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04295","article-title":"Antiviral treatment is more effective than smallpox vaccination upon lethal monkeypox virus infection","volume":"439","author":"Stittelaar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7683","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02174-10","article-title":"Establishment of the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) as a novel animal model for comparing smallpox vaccines administered preexposure in both high- and low-dose monkeypox virus challenges","volume":"85","author":"Keckler","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02331","article-title":"Immunogenicity of a highly attenuated MVA smallpox vaccine and protection against monkeypox","volume":"428","author":"Earl","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2018.11.004","article-title":"Vaccinating against monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of the Congo","volume":"162","author":"Petersen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1983","DOI":"10.1038\/d41591-022-00077-1","article-title":"A prospective national cohort evaluating ring MVA vaccination as post-exposure prophylaxis for monkeypox","volume":"28","author":"Nguyen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.06.034","article-title":"Ischemic cardiac events and other adverse events following ACAM2000\u00ae smallpox vaccine in the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System","volume":"32","author":"McNeil","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7805","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03481-12","article-title":"Assessment of the protective effect of Imvamune and Acam2000 vaccines against aerosolized monkeypox virus in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"87","author":"Hatch","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keckler, M.S., Salzer, J.S., Patel, N., Townsend, M.B., Nakazawa, Y.J., Doty, J.B., Gallardo-Romero, N.F., Satheshkumar, P.S., Carroll, D.S., and Karem, K.L. (2020). IMVAMUNE\u00ae and ACAM2000\u00ae Provide Different Protection against Disease When Administered Postexposure in an Intranasal Monkeypox Challenge Prairie Dog Model. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8030396"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.15336","article-title":"Compassionate Use of Tecovirimat for the Treatment of Monkeypox Infection","volume":"328","author":"Desai","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13139","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.20.13139-13149.2005","article-title":"An orally bioavailable antipoxvirus compound (ST-246) inhibits extracellular virus formation and protects mice from lethal orthopoxvirus Challenge","volume":"79","author":"Yang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1705688","article-title":"Oral Tecovirimat for the Treatment of Smallpox","volume":"379","author":"Grosenbach","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1358\/dot.2010.46.2.1437244","article-title":"Tecovirimat for smallpox infections","volume":"46","author":"Bolken","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drugs Today"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dku545","article-title":"ST-246 is a key antiviral to inhibit the viral F13L phospholipase, one of the essential proteins for orthopoxvirus wrapping","volume":"70","author":"Duraffour","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01044-08","article-title":"In vitro efficacy of ST246 against smallpox and monkeypox","volume":"53","author":"Smith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.10.049","article-title":"Co-administration of tecovirimat and ACAM2000 in non-human primates: Effect of tecovirimat treatment on ACAM2000 immunogenicity and efficacy versus lethal monkeypox virus challenge","volume":"38","author":"Russo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.76.768","article-title":"Efficacy of the antipoxvirus compound ST-246 for treatment of severe orthopoxvirus infection","volume":"76","author":"Sbrana","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2022.106703","article-title":"Monkeypox virus (MPX) in humans a concern: Trespassing the global boundaries\u2014Correspondence","volume":"104","author":"Thakur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01596-08","article-title":"ST-246 antiviral efficacy in a nonhuman primate monkeypox model: Determination of the minimal effective dose and human dose justification","volume":"53","author":"Jordan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frenois-Veyrat, G., Gallardo, F., Gorge, O., Marcheteau, E., Ferraris, O., Baidaliuk, A., Favier, A.-L., Enfroy, C., Holy, X., and Lourenco, J. (2022). Tecovirimat is highly efficient on the Monkeypox virus lineage responsible for the international 2022 outbreak. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.07.19.500484"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2620","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00021-09","article-title":"Nonhuman primates are protected from smallpox virus or monkeypox virus challenges by the antiviral drug ST-246","volume":"53","author":"Huggins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9176","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02173-10","article-title":"Effective antiviral treatment of systemic orthopoxvirus disease: ST-246 treatment of prairie dogs infected with monkeypox virus","volume":"85","author":"Smith","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00228-6","article-title":"Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: A retrospective observational study in the UK","volume":"22","author":"Adler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00008-6","article-title":"Cidofovir in the treatment of poxvirus infections","volume":"55","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-022-01742-y","article-title":"Prevention and Treatment of Monkeypox","volume":"82","author":"Rizk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virs.2022.07.006","article-title":"Monkeypox virus: A re-emergent threat to humans","volume":"37","author":"Gong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2007.11.013","article-title":"Differential pathogenesis of cowpox virus intranasal infections in mice induced by low and high inoculum volumes and effects of cidofovir treatment","volume":"31","author":"Smee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.6.2267-2273.2004","article-title":"Efficacy of cidofovir in a murine model of disseminated progressive vaccinia","volume":"48","author":"Neyts","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.46.5.1329-1335.2002","article-title":"Characterization of wild-type and cidofovir-resistant strains of camelpox, cowpox, monkeypox, and vaccinia viruses","volume":"46","author":"Smee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.1997.03890440061010","article-title":"Resolution of recalcitrant molluscum contagiosum virus lesions in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients treated with cidofovir","volume":"133","author":"Meadows","year":"1997","journal-title":"Arch. Derm."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afshar, Z.M., Rostami, H.N., Hosseinzadeh, R., Janbakhsh, A., Pirzaman, A.T., Babazadeh, A., Aryanian, Z., Sio, T.T., Barary, M., and Ebrahimpour, S. (2022). The reemergence of monkeypox as a new potential health challenge: A critical review. Authorea Prepr.","DOI":"10.22541\/au.165446104.43472483\/v1"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alakunle, E., Moens, U., Nchinda, G., and Okeke, M.I. (2020). Monkeypox Virus in Nigeria: Infection Biology, Epidemiology, and Evolution. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12111257"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1097\/FTD.0000000000000353","article-title":"Brincidofovir Is Not a Substrate for the Human Organic Anion Transporter 1: A Mechanistic Explanation for the Lack of Nephrotoxicity Observed in Clinical Studies","volume":"38","author":"Tippin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ther. Drug Monit."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3909","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02012-09","article-title":"A mouse model of lethal infection for evaluating prophylactics and therapeutics against Monkeypox virus","volume":"84","author":"Stabenow","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00927-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00927-20","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and Efficacy of a Potential Smallpox Therapeutic, Brincidofovir, in a Lethal Monkeypox Virus Animal Model","volume":"6","author":"Hutson","year":"2021","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2016.12.015","article-title":"Buccal viral DNA as a trigger for brincidofovir therapy in the mousepox model of smallpox","volume":"139","author":"Crump","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3990","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1851","article-title":"Remdesivir Use in the Setting of Severe Renal Impairment: A Theoretical Concern or Real Risk?","volume":"73","author":"Pettit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2015.05.023","article-title":"Worsening Renal Function in Patients with Baseline Renal Impairment Treated with Intravenous Voriconazole: A Systematic Review","volume":"46","author":"Turner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"315","article-title":"Effect of Probenecid on the Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of Cidofovir in Rabbits","volume":"24","author":"Cundy","year":"1996","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Dispos."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.31646\/gbio.12","article-title":"Efficacy of three key antiviral drugs used to treat orthopoxvirus infections: A systematic review","volume":"1","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Biosecurity"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3275","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.10.3275-3280.2003","article-title":"Efficacy of Multiple- or Single-dose Cidofovir Against Vaccinia and Cowpox Virus Infections in Mice","volume":"47","author":"Quenelle","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.01.009","article-title":"Short-term Clinical Safety Profile of Brincidofovir: A Favorable Benefit-risk Proposition in the Treatment of Smallpox","volume":"143","author":"Chittick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/15\/7\/1533\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:11:04Z","timestamp":1760127064000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/15\/7\/1533"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,12]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v15071533"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v15071533","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,12]]}}}