{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T20:10:45Z","timestamp":1792267845484,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":14,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,4]],"date-time":"2023-08-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691107200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Numerous mammalian viruses are routinely analyzed in clinical diagnostic laboratories around the globe or serve as indispensable model systems in viral research. Potentially infectious viral entities are handled as blood, biopsies, or cell and tissue culture samples. Countless protocols describe methods for virus fixation and inactivation, yet for many, a formal proof of safety and completeness of inactivation remains to be shown. While modern nucleic acid extraction methods work quite effectively, data are largely lacking on possible residual viral infectivity, e.g., when assessed after extended culture times, which maximizes the sensitivity for low levels of residual infectiousness. Therefore, we examined the potency and completeness of inactivation procedures on virus-containing specimens when applying commonly used fixatives like formaldehyde or nucleic acid extraction\/lysis buffers. Typical representatives of different virus classes, including RNA and DNA viruses, enveloped and non-enveloped, such as adenovirus, enterovirus, lentivirus, and coronavirus, were used, and the reduction in the in vitro infectiousness was assessed for standard protocols. Overall, a 30-minute incubation with formaldehyde at room temperature effectively inactivated all tested enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Full inactivation of HIV-1 and ECHO-11 was also achieved with all buffers in the test, whereas for SARS-CoV-2 and AdV-5, only five of the seven lysis buffers were fully effective under the tested conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15081693","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,4]],"date-time":"2023-08-04T09:27:48Z","timestamp":1691141268000},"page":"1693","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Virus Inactivation by Formaldehyde and Common Lysis Buffers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ulrike","family":"Seeburg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4009 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4122-515X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorena","family":"Urda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4009 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0572-617X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabian","family":"Otte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4009 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin J.","family":"Lett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4009 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Caimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4009 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4353-3555","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Mittelholzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4009 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4945-6511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Klimkait","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4009 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2023, July 24). Classification of Organisms (Switzerland). Available online: https:\/\/www.bafu.admin.ch\/bafu\/en\/home\/topics\/biotechnology\/publications-studies\/publications\/classification-of-organisms.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2023, July 24). Guidelines on Viral Inactivation and Removal Procedures Intended to Assure the Viral Safety of Human Blood Plasma Products. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/m\/item\/WHO-TRS924-Annex4."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2023, July 24). ICH Guideline Q5A(R2) on Viral Safety Evaluation of Biotechnology Products Derived from Cell Lines of Human or Animal Origin-Scientific Guideline. Available online: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/ich-guideline-q5ar2-viral-safety-evaluation-biotechnology-products-derived-cell-lines-human-animal."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2023, July 24). Virus Safety Evaluation of Biotechnological Investigational Medicinal Products-Scientific Guideline. 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