{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T11:15:25Z","timestamp":1774955725003,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,9]],"date-time":"2023-08-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691539200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["AI169609"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI169609"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["DA047039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DA047039"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["AI068634"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI068634"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["DA051915"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DA051915"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["UM1 AI068636"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UM1 AI068636"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["UM1 AI106701"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UM1 AI106701"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["P30 AI036214"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 AI036214"]}]},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","award":["R01DA055491"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DA055491"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>People with HIV are more likely to have opioid use disorder and to be prescribed opioids for chronic pain than the general population; however, the effects of opioids on the immune system and HIV persistence have not been fully elucidated. Opioids may affect HIV reservoirs during their establishment, maintenance, and reactivation by enhancing HIV infectivity and replication due to upregulation of co-receptors and impairment of innate antiviral responses. Opioids may also modulate immune cell functioning and microbial translocation and can reverse viral latency. In this review, we summarize the current findings for and against the modulating effects of opioids on HIV cellular and anatomical reservoirs, highlighting the current limitations that affect in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies in the field. We propose further research targets and potential strategies to approach this topic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15081712","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,9]],"date-time":"2023-08-09T10:08:59Z","timestamp":1691575739000},"page":"1712","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Beyond the Syndemic of Opioid Use Disorders and HIV: The Impact of Opioids on Viral Reservoirs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8663-719X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mattia","family":"Trunfio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences at Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, University of Turin, 10149 Turin, Italy"},{"name":"HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego (UCSD), San Diego, CA 92103, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9490-3857","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antoine","family":"Chaillon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9765-7786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadejda","family":"Beliakova-Bethell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"},{"name":"VA San Diego Healthcare System and Veterans Medical Research Foundation, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Deiss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"},{"name":"VA San Diego Healthcare System and Veterans Medical Research Foundation, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Owen Clinic, University of California San Diego (UCSD), San Diego, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Scott L.","family":"Letendre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego (UCSD), San Diego, CA 92103, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Patricia K.","family":"Riggs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Niamh","family":"Higgins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Gianella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7006a4","article-title":"Trends and Geographic Patterns in Drug and Synthetic Opioid Overdose Deaths\u2014United States, 2013\u20132019","volume":"70","author":"Mattson","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. 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