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The success of mRNA vaccines in combating the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus that emerged in 2019 has highlighted the potential of RNA vaccines. These vaccines possess several advantages, such as high efficacy, adaptability, simplicity in antigen design, and the ability to induce both humoral and cellular immunity. They also offer rapid and cost-effective manufacturing, flexibility to target emerging or mutant pathogens and a potential approach for clearing immunotolerant microbes by targeting bacterial or parasitic survival mechanisms. The self-adjuvant effect of mRNA-lipid nanoparticle (LNP) formulations or circular RNA further enhances the potential of RNA vaccines. However, some challenges need to be addressed. These include the technology\u2019s immaturity, high research expenses, limited duration of antibody response, mRNA instability, low efficiency of circRNA cyclization, and the production of double-stranded RNA as a side product. These factors hinder the widespread adoption and utilization of RNA vaccines, particularly in developing countries. This review provides a comprehensive overview of mRNA, circRNA, and saRNA vaccines for infectious diseases while also discussing their development, current applications, and challenges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15081760","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,18]],"date-time":"2023-08-18T10:14:38Z","timestamp":1692353678000},"page":"1760","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":63,"title":["Vaccines\u2019 New Era-RNA Vaccine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2820-2507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenshuo","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linglei","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9427-9265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shimiao","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feifei","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3287-4454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guohuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0151-4046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Li","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-3928-8388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinping","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2755-6821","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"Shanghai-Virogin Biotech Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuntao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNBG-Virogin Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"Sinopharm Group China National Biotech Group (CNBG) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100124, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-02483-w","article-title":"The Tangled History of MRNA Vaccines","volume":"597","author":"Dolgin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03275-y","article-title":"BNT162b Vaccines Protect Rhesus Macaques from SARS-CoV-2","volume":"592","author":"Vogel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb2507","article-title":"Cryo-EM Structure of the 2019-NCoV Spike in the Prefusion Conformation","volume":"367","author":"Wrapp","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanders, R.W., Derking, R., Cupo, A., Julien, J.-P., Yasmeen, A., de Val, N., Kim, H.J., Blattner, C., de la Pe\u00f1a, A.T., and Korzun, J. 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