{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:13:38Z","timestamp":1787030018515,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]],"date-time":"2023-10-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697673600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukemia virus (FeLV) are retroviral infections of cats worldwide whose clinical manifestations range from mild to severe disease. In both cases, infected cats can live a long life with proper care and should be managed to prevent infection of other cats. Dirofilaria immitis, the nematode that causes heartworm disease, can infect cats in any region where dogs are infected. Though cats are more resistant to infection, clinical diseases in the form of heartworm-associated respiratory disease can cause death. Screening for these infectious diseases enables veterinarians to manage their cases and prevent the spread to other cats. We describe the diagnostic accuracy of a point-of-care immunoassay for FIV, FeLV, and heartworm, compared to reference methods commonly available through reference laboratories to the practicing veterinarian. For FIV, we report 100% sensitivity (95% confidence limits (CL): 96.2\u2013100%) and 97.8% specificity (95% CL: 95.4\u201399.4%). For FeLV, we report 100% sensitivity (95% CL: 97.7\u2013100%) and 99.2% specificity (95% CL: 97.1\u201399.9%). And for heartworm, we report 90.2% sensitivity (95% CL: 76.9\u201397.3%) and 100% specificity (95% CL: 98.3\u2013100%). Veterinarians may expect this performance relative to the reference methods they use for confirmatory serological testing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v15102117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]],"date-time":"2023-10-19T02:54:43Z","timestamp":1697684083000},"page":"2117","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Diagnostic Accuracy of a Point-of-Care Immunoassay for Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Antibodies, Feline Leukemia Virus Antigen, and Dirofilaria immitis Antigen"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Seema","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME 04092, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3496-2454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristen A.","family":"Davenport","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME 04092, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Schooley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME 04092, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony","family":"Ruggiero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME 04092, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salam","family":"Nassar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME 04092, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesse","family":"Buch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME 04092, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramaswamy","family":"Chandrashekar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Westbrook, ME 04092, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X19895940","article-title":"2020 AAFP Feline Retrovirus Testing and Management Guidelines","volume":"22","author":"Little","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2684","DOI":"10.3390\/v4112684","article-title":"Clinical Aspects of Feline Retroviruses: A Review","volume":"4","author":"Hartmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2019.108995","article-title":"The prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in the Old World","volume":"280","author":"Genchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvc.2015.08.004","article-title":"Feline heartworm disease: A \u2018Rubik\u2019s-cube-like\u2019 diagnostic and therapeutic challenge","volume":"17","author":"Venco","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3380","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.68.5.3380-3385.1994","article-title":"Feline immunodeficiency virus can be experimentally transmitted via milk during acute maternal infection","volume":"68","author":"Sellon","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"171","article-title":"Vertical Transmission of Feline Immunodeficiency Virus","volume":"11","author":"Burkhard","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-9-99","article-title":"Natural transmission of feline immunodeficiency virus from infected queen to kitten","volume":"9","author":"Medeiros","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfms.2009.05.006","article-title":"Feline immunodeficiency. ABCD guidelines on prevention and management","volume":"11","author":"Hosie","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.12.023","article-title":"Contrasting clinical outcomes in two cohorts of cats naturally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)","volume":"176","author":"Beczkowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"CAPC Vet (2023, July 21). CAPC FIV Prevalence. Available online: https:\/\/CapcvetOrg\/Maps\/#\/2023\/All-Year\/Fiv\/Cat\/United-States."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Buch, J., Beall, M., O\u2019Connor, T., and Chandrashekar, R. (2017). Worldwide Clinic-Based Serologic Survey of FIV Antibody and FeLV Antigen in Cats, ACVIM."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.2478\/acve-2022-0034","article-title":"Clinicopathological Findings in Cats Tested for Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) and Feline Leukaemia Virus (FELV)","volume":"72","author":"Battilani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Brno"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2003.tb02798.x","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Bartonella henselae, Toxoplasma gondii, FIV and FeLV infections in domestic cats in Japan","volume":"47","author":"Maruyama","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfms.2009.05.005","article-title":"Feline leukaemia. ABCD guidelines on prevention and management","volume":"11","author":"Lutz","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X20941785","article-title":"Feline leukaemia virus infection: A practical approach to diagnosis","volume":"22","author":"Hartmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Hartmann, K., Hofmann-Lehmann, R., and Sykes, J.E. (2021). Greene\u2019s Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat, Elsevier. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"CAPC Vet (2023, July 21). CAPC FeLV Prevalence. Available online: https:\/\/CapcvetOrg\/Maps\/#\/2023\/All-Year\/Felv\/Cat\/United-States."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Studer, N., Lutz, H., Saegerman, C., G\u00f6nczi, E., Meli, M.L., Boo, G., Hartmann, K., Hosie, M.J., Moestl, K., and Tasker, S. (2019). Pan-European Study on the Prevalence of the Feline Leukaemia Virus Infection\u2014Reported by the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD Europe). Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11110993"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giselbrecht, J., J\u00e4hne, S., Bergmann, M., Meli, M.L., Pineroli, B., Boenzli, E., Teichmann-Knorrn, S., Zablotski, Y., Pennisi, M.-G., and Layachi, N. (2023). Prevalence of Different Courses of Feline Leukaemia Virus Infection in Four European Countries. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15081718"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watanabe, S., Kawamura, M., Odahara, Y., Anai, Y., Ochi, H., Nakagawa, S., Endo, Y., Tsujimoto, H., and Nishigaki, K. (2013). Phylogenetic and Structural Diversity in the Feline Leukemia Virus Env Gene. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0061009"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X20917601","article-title":"Dirofilarioses in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management","volume":"22","author":"Pennisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.5326\/0400376","article-title":"Comparison of serological tests for the detection of natural heartworm infection in cats","volume":"40","author":"Berdoulay","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2008.09.007","article-title":"Acute death in heartworm-infected cats: Unraveling the puzzle","volume":"158","author":"Litster","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"CAPC Vet (2023, July 21). CAPC Heartworm Prevalence. Available online: https:\/\/CapcvetOrg\/Maps\/#\/2023\/All-Year\/Feline-Heartworm-Ag\/Cat\/United-States."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819082","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.819082","article-title":"Feline Heartworm in Clinical Settings in a High Canine Prevalence Area","volume":"9","author":"Alberigi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vpoa.2020.100027","article-title":"Heartworm prevalence in dogs versus cats: Multiple diagnostic modalities provide new insights","volume":"277","author":"Hays","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.69.4.2110-2118.1995","article-title":"Structural analysis of the principal immunodominant domain of the feline immunodeficiency virus transmembrane glycoprotein","volume":"69","author":"Pancino","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.67.2.664-672.1993","article-title":"B epitopes and selection pressures in feline immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoproteins","volume":"67","author":"Pancino","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0923-2516(06)80031-2","article-title":"Serological diagnosis of feline immunodeficiency virus infection based on synthetic peptides from Env glycoproteins","volume":"144","author":"Avrameas","year":"1993","journal-title":"Res. Virol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1994.1028","article-title":"Antibody response in cats to the envelope proteins of feline immunodeficiency virus: Identification of an immunodominant neutralization domain","volume":"198","author":"Stam","year":"1994","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moskaluk, A., Nehring, M., and Vande Woude, S. (2021). Serum Samples from Co-Infected and Domestic Cat Field Isolates Nonspecifically Bind FIV and Other Antigens in Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10060665"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beall, M.J., Buch, J., Cahill, R.J., Clark, G., Hanscom, J., Estrada, M., Leutenegger, C.M., and Chandrashekar, R. (2019). Evaluation of a quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for feline leukemia virus p27 antigen and comparison to proviral DNA loads by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 67.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2019.101348"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beall, M.J., Buch, J., Clark, G., Estrada, M., Rakitin, A., Hamman, N.T., Frenden, M.K., Jefferson, E.P., Amirian, E.S., and Levy, J.K. (2021). Feline Leukemia Virus p27 Antigen Concentration and Proviral DNA Load Are Associated with Survival in Naturally Infected Cats. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13020302"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2435-7","article-title":"Prevalence and epidemiology of canine and feline heartworm infection in Taiwan","volume":"10","author":"Lu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199003000-00006","article-title":"Serological responses of cats to feline immunodeficiency virus","volume":"4","author":"Hosie","year":"1990","journal-title":"Aids"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638717710451","article-title":"Analytical validation of a reference laboratory ELISA for the detection of feline leukemia virus p27 antigen","volume":"29","author":"Buch","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.71.12.1443","article-title":"Performance of a commercially available in-clinic ELISA for the detection of antibodies against Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia canis, and Borrelia burgdorferi and Dirofilaria immitis antigen in dogs","volume":"71","author":"Chandrashekar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Core Team R (2023, July 21). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (Version 4.1.0) 2021. Statistical software package. Available online: https:\/\/www.R-project.org."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"IDEXX Laboratories Inc (2023, July 21). SNAP FIV\/FeLV Combo Test. Available online: https:\/\/wwwidexxcom\/Files\/Snap-Combo-Test-AccuracyPdf2017."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"IDEXX Laboratories Inc (2023, July 21). SNAP Feline Triple Test. Available online: https:\/\/wwwidexxcom\/Files\/Snap-Feline-Triple-Test-AccuracyPdf2016."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.149.11.317","article-title":"Comparison of six in-house tests for the rapid diagnosis of feline immunodeficiency and feline leukaemia virus infections","volume":"149","author":"Hartmann","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-165X.2009.00196.x","article-title":"Evaluation of a new in-clinic test system to detect feline immunodeficiency virus and feline leukemia virus infection","volume":"39","author":"Sand","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.13823","article-title":"Update on Canine and Feline Blood Donor Screening for Blood-Borne Pathogens","volume":"30","author":"Wardrop","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/15\/10\/2117\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:09:28Z","timestamp":1760130568000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/15\/10\/2117"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["v15102117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v15102117","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]]}}}