{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:01:26Z","timestamp":1760144486337,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]],"date-time":"2024-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities of the National Institutes of Health","award":["K99MD017967","MY 2020 2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K99MD017967","MY 2020 2026"]}]},{"name":"Centene Charitable Foundation","award":["K99MD017967","MY 2020 2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K99MD017967","MY 2020 2026"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Extant literature presents contradictory findings on the role of vitamin D on SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our study included an examination of the relationship between vitamin D levels and SARS-CoV-2 infection among the Minority and Rural Coronavirus Insights Study (MRCIS) cohort, a diverse population of medically underserved persons presenting at five Federally qualified health centers in the United States. Methods: We conducted a descriptive analysis to explore the relationship between vitamin D levels and SARS-CoV-2 infection among medically underserved participants. A combined molecular and serologic assessment was used to determine the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Vitamin D was examined as both a categorical (vitamin D status: deficient, insufficient, optimal) and continuous (vitamin D level) variable. Chi-squared testing, polynomial regression models, and logistic regression models were used to assess the relationship between vitamin D and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Results: The overall SARS-CoV-2 infection rate among participants was 25.9%. Most participants were either vitamin D deficient (46.5%) or insufficient (29.7%), and 23.8% had an optimal level. Vitamin D status was significantly associated with key SARS-CoV-2 infection risk factors. As mean vitamin D levels increased, the proportion of participants with SARS-CoV-2 infection decreased. For every 10 ng\/mL increase in vitamin D levels the odds of SARS-CoV-2 infection decreased by 12% when adjusting for race\/ethnicity and age (main effect model). Participants who identified as Hispanic\/Latino or Black non-Hispanic had approximately two times increased odds of SARS-CoV-2 infection when adjusting for age and vitamin D levels compared to white non-Hispanics. However, when additional factors were added to the main effect model, the relationship between vitamin D levels and SARS-CoV-2 infection did not remain significant. Conclusion: Vitamin D levels were associated with an increased risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Hispanic\/Latino and Black, non-Hispanic compared to White, non-Hispanic participants were at increased odds for infection, after adjusting for race\/ethnicity and age.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16040639","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]],"date-time":"2024-04-19T10:53:17Z","timestamp":1713523997000},"page":"639","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Vitamin D Levels and SARS-CoV-2 Infection among Medically Underserved Populations in the Minority and Rural Coronavirus Insights Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5906-3220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Makella S.","family":"Coudray","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Minority Quality Forum, 1201 15th St NW #340, Washington, DC 20005, USA"},{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, 6900 Lake Nona Blvd, Orlando, FL 32827, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8860-9966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shantoy","family":"Hansel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Minority Quality Forum, 1201 15th St NW #340, Washington, DC 20005, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Alesci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Minority Quality Forum, 1201 15th St NW #340, Washington, DC 20005, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"suffix":"III","given":"William A.","family":"Meyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quest Diagnostics, 500 Plaza Dr, Secaucus, NJ 07094, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert H.","family":"Christenson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore St., Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7499-3007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Latrice G.","family":"Landry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3400 Civic Center Blvd, Building 421, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Edwards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Minority Quality Forum, 1201 15th St NW #340, Washington, DC 20005, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1924-6433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gary","family":"Puckrein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Minority Quality Forum, 1201 15th St NW #340, Washington, DC 20005, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2675-7178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Derrick J.","family":"Forney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Minority Quality Forum, 1201 15th St NW #340, Washington, DC 20005, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ola","family":"Akinboboye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queens Heart Institute, 23436 Merrick Blvd, New York, NY 11422, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1089\/pop.2023.0168","article-title":"The Minority and Rural Coronavirus Insights Study: Design and Baseline Characteristics of a Minority Cohort","volume":"26","author":"Coudray","year":"2023","journal-title":"Popul. 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