{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T11:56:24Z","timestamp":1768910184475,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]],"date-time":"2024-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1720051200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"SeraDiaLogistics"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The coronavirus infectious disease-2019 (COVID-19) in Bangladesh is a paradigm for how one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 1270 people per square kilometer, managed to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic under extraordinary circumstances. This review highlights the SARS-CoV-2 variants in Bangladesh and the timeline of their detection in the context of the global experience with the management of vaccination and natural SARS-CoV-2 infection. The motivation to overcome the COVID-19 vaccine dilemma and track Bangladeshi SARS-CoV-2 sub-variants underscores the potential for a low-income country to excel in international medical science, despite having stressed health care services and limited availability of resources for SARS-CoV-2 testing and gene sequencing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16071077","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]],"date-time":"2024-07-04T06:28:54Z","timestamp":1720074534000},"page":"1077","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["SARS-CoV-2 Variants and COVID-19 in Bangladesh\u2014Lessons Learned"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5617-4139","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon D.","family":"Lytton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SeraDiaLogistics, 81545 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5735-3606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asish Kumar","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Virology, Dhaka Medical College Hospital, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2023, March 10). John Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center. Available online: https:\/\/coronavirus.jhu.edu\/data."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Bangladesh Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2023, June 01). Coronavirus COVID-19 Dashboard, Available online: http:\/\/103.247.238.92\/webportal\/pages\/covid19.php."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cegolon, L., Magnano, G., Negro, C., Filon, F.L., and on behalf of the ORCHESTRA Working Group (2023). SARS-CoV-2 Reinfections in Health-Care Workers, 1 March 2020\u201331 January 2023. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15071551"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-023-01615-8","article-title":"A panel dataset of COVID-19 vaccination policies in 185 countries","volume":"7","author":"Tatlow","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00648-4","article-title":"Community transmission and viral load kinetics of the SARS-CoV-2 delta (B.1.617.2) variant in vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals in the UK: A prospective, longitudinal, cohort study","volume":"22","author":"Singanayagam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6706","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33096-0","article-title":"Viral load dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants following multiple vaccine doses and previous infections","volume":"13","author":"Woodridge","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02185-4","article-title":"A survey of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance across 23 countries in 2022","volume":"29","author":"Lazarus","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"847658","article-title":"Widespread Public Misunderstanding of Pivotal Trials for COVID-19 Vaccines May Damage Public Confidence in All Vaccines","volume":"10","author":"Gibson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-00813-8","article-title":"Longitudinal observation and decline of neutralizing antibody responses in the three months following SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans","volume":"5","author":"Seow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3991","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24285-4","article-title":"COVID-19 mRNA vaccine induced antibody responses against three SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"12","author":"Jalkanen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e157416","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI157416","article-title":"Searching for escape-resistant anti\u2013SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies","volume":"132","author":"Mahla","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"162","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 variant biology: Immune escape, transmission and fitness","volume":"21","author":"Carabelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2204336119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2204336119","article-title":"The durability of natural infection and vaccine-induced immunity against future infection by SARS-CoV-2","volume":"119","author":"Townsend","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, S.F., Quadeer, A.A., and McKay, M.R. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 T Cell Responses Elicited by COVID-19 Vaccines or Infection Are Expected to Remain Robust against Omicron. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010079"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7104e2","article-title":"COVID-19 Incidence and Death Rates Among Unvaccinated and Fully Vaccinated Adults with and Without Booster Doses During Periods of Delta and Omicron Variant Emergence\u201425 U.S. Jurisdictions, 4 April\u201325 December 2021","volume":"71","author":"Johnson","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2115481","article-title":"Duration of Protection against Mild and Severe Disease by COVID-19 Vaccines","volume":"386","author":"Andrews","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00309-7","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against the omicron (BA.2) variant in England","volume":"22","author":"Kirsebom","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2023.2143347","article-title":"Expert review of global real-world data on COVID-19 vaccine booster effectiveness and safety during the omicron-dominant phase of the pandemic","volume":"22","author":"Solante","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.04.036","article-title":"Vaccine Hesitancy: Definition, Scope and Determinants","volume":"33","author":"MacDonald","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2023.03.016","article-title":"Latent class analysis of medical mistrust and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among adults in the United States just prior to FDA emergency use authorization","volume":"41","author":"Lamuda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabm9825","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abm9825","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in eight European countries: Prevalence, determinants, and heterogeneity","volume":"8","author":"Steinert","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2023, March 30). WHO Vaccine Tracker and Landscape. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/teams\/blueprint\/covid-19\/covid-19-vaccine-tracker-and-landscape."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2023, March 13). New York Times Tracking Coronavirus Vaccinations around the World. Available online: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/world\/covid-vaccinations-tracker.html."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2023, June 01). Surokkha. Available online: https:\/\/play.google.com\/store\/apps\/details?id=com.codersbucket.surokkha_app&hl=en."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"e050303","article-title":"What is the extent of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in Bangladesh? A cross-sectional rapid national survey","volume":"11","author":"Ali","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00028-7","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine inequity, dependency, and production capability in low-income and middle-income countries: The case of Bangladesh","volume":"22","author":"Hewins","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20587384211065628","DOI":"10.1177\/20587384211065628","article-title":"The COVID-19 vaccination experience in Bangladesh: Findings from a cross-sectional study","volume":"35","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1281","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1281","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccination success in Bangladesh: Key strategies were prompt response, early drives for vaccines, and effective awareness campaigns","volume":"6","author":"Nazmunnahar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, N.M., and Ghosh, S. (2023). A Study on the Key Elements of Bangladesh\u2019s Vaccine Diplomacy During COVID-19. J. Asian Afr. Stud., 00219096231179659.","DOI":"10.1177\/00219096231179659"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11220","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2005335117","article-title":"Evidence from internet search data shows information-seeking responses to news of local COVID-19 cases","volume":"117","author":"Bento","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.04.033","article-title":"Association of the COVID-19 pandemic with Internet Search Volumes: A Google TrendsTM Analysis","volume":"95","author":"Effenberger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bromme, R., Mede, N.G., Thomm, E., Kremer, B., and Ziegler, R. (2022). An anchor in troubled times: Trust in science before and within the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262823"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22446-z","article-title":"Mortality outcomes with hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in COVID-19 from an international collaborative meta-analysis of randomized trials","volume":"12","author":"Axfors","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RECOVERY Collaborative Group, Horby, P., Mafham, M., Linsell, L., Bell, J.L., Staplin, N., Emberson, J.R., Wiselka, M., Ustianowski, A., and Elmahi, E. (2020). Effect of Hydroxychloroquine in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19. N. Engl. J. Med., 383, 2030\u20132040.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2022926"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e257","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(20)30089-8","article-title":"Excitement around hydroxychloroquine for treating COVID-19 causes challenges for rheumatology","volume":"2","author":"Owens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3000605211013550","DOI":"10.1177\/03000605211013550","article-title":"Ivermectin in combination with doxycycline for treating COVID-19 symptoms: A randomized trial","volume":"49","author":"Mahmud","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31142-9","article-title":"Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"395","author":"Chu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, Z., Hoque, E., Alam, R., Rouf, A., Khan, S.I., Xu, H., and Ramakrishna, S. (2022). Face Masks to Combat Coronavirus (COVID-19)\u2014Processing, Roles, Requirements, Efficacy, Risk and Sustainability. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14071296"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jennings, W., Stoker, G., Bunting, H., Valgar\u00f0sson, V.O., Gaskell, J., Devine, D., McKay, L., and Mills, M.C. (2021). Lack of Trust, Conspiracy Beliefs, and Social Media Use Predict COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.01.26.21250246"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)02792-7","article-title":"Offline: Boris Johnson and COVID-19\u2014More light than heat","volume":"402","author":"Horton","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.3934\/publichealth.2022018","article-title":"The impact of misinformation on the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"9","author":"Caceres","year":"2022","journal-title":"AIMS Public Health"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1004572024","article-title":"COVID-19 Pandemic in Bangladesh. A scoping review of governance issues affecting response in public sector","volume":"7","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Public Health Pract."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e068633","article-title":"Assessment of COVID-19 management and its consequences on healthcare professionals: A cross-sectional study from Bangladesh","volume":"13","author":"Ara","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.8.2000097","article-title":"Early transmission patterns of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in travellers from Wuhan to Thailand, January 2020","volume":"25","author":"Okada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, June 01). Tracking SARS-CoV-2 Variants, Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/activities\/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, June 01). Guidance for Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Interim Guidance, 9 August 2021, Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO_2019-nCoV_surveillance_variants."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, June 01). WHO SAGE Roadmap on Uses of COVID-19 Vaccines in the Context of OMICRON and Substantial Population Immunity, Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO-2019-nCoV-vaccines-SAGE-good-practice-statement-second-booster."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Focosi, D., Quiroga, R., McConnell, S., Johnson, M.C., and Casadevall, A. (2023). Convergent Evolution in SARS-CoV-2 Spike Creates a Variant Soup from Which New COVID-19 Waves Emerge. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032264"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.06.043","article-title":"Tracking Changes in SARS-CoV-2 Spike: Evidence that D614G Increases Infectivity of the COVID-19 Virus","volume":"182","author":"Korber","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2023, June 12). Global Initiative On sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID) EpiCoV. Available online: https:\/\/gisaid.org\/hcov19-variants\/."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-023-00878-2","article-title":"The evolution of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"21","author":"Markov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pulliam, J.R.C., van Schalkwyk, C., Govender, N., von Gottberg, A., Cohen, C., Groome, M.J., Dushoff, J., Mlisana, K., and Moultrie, H. (2021). Increased risk of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection associated with emergence of the Omicron variant in South Africa. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.11.11.21266068"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2068883","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2022.2068883","article-title":"Delta variant (B.1.617.2) of SARS-CoV-2: Mutations, impact, challenges and possible solutions","volume":"18","author":"Dhawan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4126","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2021.1963601","article-title":"Impact of SARS-CoV-2 delta variant (B.1.617.2) in surging second wave of COVID-19 and efficacy of vaccines in tackling the ongoing pandemic","volume":"17","author":"Tareq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabq4411","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abq4411","article-title":"Twin peaks: The Omicron SARS-CoV-2 BA.1 and BA.2 epidemics in England","volume":"376","author":"Elliott","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2800","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-38435-3","article-title":"Virological characteristics of the SARS-CoV-2 XBB variant derived from recombination of two Omicron subvariants","volume":"14","author":"Tamura","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"e939580","article-title":"Editorial: The XBB.1.5 (\u2018Kraken\u2019) Subvariant of Omicron SARS-CoV-2 and its Rapid Global Spread","volume":"29","author":"Parums","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00051-8","article-title":"Enhanced transmissibility, infectivity, and immune resistance of the SARS-CoV-2 omicron XBB.1.5 variant","volume":"23","author":"Uriu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1038\/s41589-022-01059-7","article-title":"Structure and activity of human TMPRSS2 protease implicated in SARS-CoV-2 activation","volume":"18","author":"Fraser","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-021-00418-x","article-title":"Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells","volume":"23","author":"Jackson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-021-00573-0","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 variants, spike mutations and immune escape","volume":"19","author":"Harvey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.1c00433","article-title":"Structure and Mutations of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein: A Focused Overview","volume":"8","author":"Mehra","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infpip.2021.100159","article-title":"Bangladesh reported delta variant of coronavirus among its citizen: Actionable items to tackle the potential massive third wave","volume":"3","author":"Daria","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Prev. Pract."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"1","article-title":"The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in Dhaka city, Bangladesh","volume":"1","author":"Rahman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2024.01.017","article-title":"Case fatality rates of COVID-19 during epidemic periods of variants of concern: A meta-analysis by continents","volume":"141","author":"Xia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemep.2021.100722","article-title":"Delta variant and black fungal invasion: A bidirectional assault might worsen the massive second\/third stream of COVID-19 outbreak in South-Asia","volume":"19","author":"Bari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ethic- Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossain, M.S., Khan, J.R., Al Mamun, S.M.A., Islam, M.T., and Raheem, E. (2023). Excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020\u20132021) in an urban community of Bangladesh. PLoS Glob. Public Health, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0002176"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10060637","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid detection in Bangladeshi Covid-19 is not affected by Dengue infection","volume":"10","author":"Lytton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-021-00955-3","article-title":"Genomics, social media and mobile phone data enable mapping of SARS-CoV-2 lineages to inform health policy in Bangladesh","volume":"6","author":"Cowley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, A.K., Kaiser, M., Molla, M.A., Nafisa, T., Yeasmin, M., Ratul, R.H., Sharif, M., Akram, A., Hosen, N., and Mamunur, R. (2021). Molecular and Serological Characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant in Bangladesh in 2021. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13112310"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, A.K., Landt, O., Yeasmin, M., Sharif, M., Ratul, R.H., Molla, M.A., Nafisa, T., Mosaddeque, M.B., Hosen, N., and Bulbul, R.H. (2022). Clinical Presentation of COVID-19 and Antibody Responses in Bangladeshi Patients Infected with the Delta or Omicron Variants of SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10111959"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000000246","article-title":"The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron recombinant subvariants XBB, XBB.1, and XBB.1.5 are expanding rapidly with unique mutations, antibody evasion, and immune escape properties\u2014An alarming global threat of a surge in COVID-19 cases again?","volume":"109","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s43168-021-00053-2","article-title":"A review of the genome, epidemiology, clinical features, prevention, and treatment scenario of COVID-19: Bangladesh aspects","volume":"15","author":"Noman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Egypt J. Bronchol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e006012","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2021-006012","article-title":"COVID-19 rise in Bangladesh correlates with increasing detection of B.1.351 variant","volume":"6","author":"Saha","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-021-00360-w","article-title":"Emergence of highly infectious SARS-CoV-2 variants in Bangladesh: The need for systematic genetic surveillance as a public health strategy","volume":"49","author":"Hasan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health BMC"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e31011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e31011","article-title":"The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS CoV-2) omicron sub-variants in Bangladesh cause mild COVID-19 and associate with similar antibody responses irrespective of natural infection or vaccination history","volume":"10","author":"Lytton","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.12.018","article-title":"Alarming antibody evasion properties of rising SARS-CoV-2 BQ and XBB subvariants","volume":"186","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"104862","article-title":"Hepatitis E Virus Capsid Antigen (HEV-Ag)\u2014A practical diagnostic biomarker in the HEV outbreak scenario","volume":"134","author":"Lytton","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.14415","article-title":"Challenges in the establishment of a biosafety testing laboratory for COVID-19 in Bangladesh","volume":"15","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"(2023, June 01). Concern Launches Coronavirus Screening Booths in Bangladesh. Available online: https:\/\/www.concern.org.uk\/news\/concern-launches-coronavirus-screening-booths-bangladesh."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31819-5","article-title":"Bangladesh\u2019s COVID-19 testing criticised","volume":"396","author":"Cousins","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serv\u00e1n-Mori, E., Islam, D., Kaplan, W.A., Thrasher, R., and Wirtz, V.J. (2022). Out-of-pocket expenditure on medicines in Bangladesh: An analysis of the national household income and expenditure survey 2016\u20132017. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0274671"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-017-0654-3","article-title":"Who pays for healthcare in Bangladesh? An analysis of progressivity in health systems financing","volume":"16","author":"Molla","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Equity Health"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020314","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.10.020314","article-title":"A combination of COVID-19 and dengue fever in Bangladesh: Preparedness of Bangladesh","volume":"10","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/7\/1077\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:10:01Z","timestamp":1760109001000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/7\/1077"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v16071077"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v16071077","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]]}}}