{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T20:21:17Z","timestamp":1768681277911,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,7]],"date-time":"2024-08-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722988800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (DFATD)","award":["SGDE-EDRMS-#9926532"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SGDE-EDRMS-#9926532"]}]},{"name":"Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (DFATD)","award":["INV-017556"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-017556"]}]},{"name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF)","award":["SGDE-EDRMS-#9926532"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SGDE-EDRMS-#9926532"]}]},{"name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF)","award":["INV-017556"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-017556"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The first case of COVID-19 was detected in Bangladesh on 8 March 2020. Since then, the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has implemented various measures to limit the transmission of COVID-19, including widespread testing facilities across the nation through a laboratory network for COVID-19 molecular testing. This study aimed to analyze the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 in Bangladesh by conducting COVID-19 testing and genomic surveillance of the virus variants throughout the pandemic. Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from authorized GoB collection centers between April 2020 and June 2023. The viral RNA was extracted and subjected to real-time PCR analysis in icddr,b\u2019s Virology laboratory. A subset of positive samples underwent whole-genome sequencing to track the evolutionary footprint of SARS-CoV-2 variants. We tested 149,270 suspected COVID-19 cases from Dhaka (n = 81,782) and other districts (n = 67,488). Of these, 63% were male. The highest positivity rate, 27%, was found in the &gt;60 years age group, followed by 26%, 51\u201360 years, 25% in 41\u201350 years, and the lowest, 9% in under five children. Notably, the sequencing of 2742 SARS-CoV-2 genomes displayed a pattern of globally circulating variants, Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron, successively replacing each other over time and causing peaks of COVID-19 infection. Regarding the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, it was observed that the positivity rate increased with age compared to the under-5 age group in 2020 and 2021. However, these trends did not remain consistent in 2022, where older age groups, particularly those over 60, had a lower positivity rate compared to other age groups due to vaccination. The study findings generated data on the real-time circulation of different SARS-CoV-2 variants and the upsurge of COVID-19 cases in Bangladesh, which impacted identifying hotspots and restricting the virus from further transmission. Even though there is currently a low circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in Bangladesh, similar approaches of genomic surveillance remain essential for monitoring the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants or other potential pathogens that could lead to future pandemics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16081263","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,7]],"date-time":"2024-08-07T08:42:28Z","timestamp":1723020148000},"page":"1263","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Comprehensive Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Dynamics in Bangladesh: Infection Trends and Variants (2020\u20132023)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7975-9383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mst. Noorjahan","family":"Begum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Selim Reza","family":"Tony","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0249-0974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Jubair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Md. Shaheen","family":"Alam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yeasir","family":"Karim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohammad Hridoy","family":"Patwary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0092-9261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sezanur","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohammad Tanbir","family":"Habib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Developing Science and Health Initiatives, Dhaka 1206, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anisuddin","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5511-1857","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Enayet","family":"Hossain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4103-4835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed Ziaur","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manjur Hossain","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5061-3783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tahmina","family":"Shirin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Firdausi","family":"Qadri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6876-0191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mustafizur","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Worldometer (2024, July 11). COVID-19 CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldometers.info\/coronavirus\/."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Director General of Health Services (DGHS) (2024, July 11). COVID-19 Dynamic Dashboard for Bangladesh, Available online: https:\/\/dashboard.dghs.gov.bd\/pages\/covid19.php."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.22-0068","article-title":"An assessment of a rapid SARS-CoV-2 antigen test in Bangladesh","volume":"107","author":"Kawser","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51384","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-21041-z","article-title":"COVID-19 diagnostic methods in developing countries","volume":"29","author":"Maniruzzaman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sazed, S.A., Kibria, M.G., Zamil, M.F., Hossain, M.S., Khan, J.Z., Juthi, R.T., Hossain, M.E., Ahmed, D., Noor, Z., and Haque, R. (2022). Direct Nasal Swab for Rapid Test and Saliva as an Alternative Biological Sample for RT-PCR in COVID-19 Diagnosis. Microbiol. Spectr., 10.","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01998-22"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2021.10.005","article-title":"Dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC) in Bangladesh during the first half of 2021","volume":"565","author":"Afrin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2022.11.024","article-title":"Global emerging Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2: Impacts, challenges and strategies","volume":"16","author":"Dhama","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1209","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1209","article-title":"Temporal dynamics and fatality of SARS-CoV-2 variants in Bangladesh","volume":"6","author":"Rahman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Aleem, A., Akbar Samad, A.B., and Vaqar, S. (2024). Emerging Variants of SARS-CoV-2 and Novel Therapeutics against Coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-01098-x","article-title":"Closing borders is ridiculous\u2019: The epidemiologist behind Sweden\u2019s controversial coronavirus strategy","volume":"580","author":"Paterlini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb6105","article-title":"An investigation of transmission control measures during the first 50 days of the COVID-19 epidemic in China","volume":"368","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"10","article-title":"New Zealand\u2019s elimination strategy for the COVID-19 pandemic and what is required to make it work","volume":"133","author":"Baker","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Z. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neher, R.A., Dyrdak, R., Druelle, V., Hodcroft, E.B., and Albert, J. (2020). Impact of seasonal forcing on a potential SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.02.13.20022806"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-00121-z","article-title":"Fast-spreading COVID variant can elude immune responses","volume":"589","author":"Callaway","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, B., Gao, L., Zhou, Q., Yu, K., and Sun, F. (2022). Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-022-02397-y"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2020). Technical Guidelines for COVID-19 Laboratory Testing. China CDC Wkly., 2, 332\u2013336.","DOI":"10.46234\/ccdcw2020.085"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.46234\/ccdcw2020.116","article-title":"Three Novel Real-Time RT-PCR Assays for Detection of COVID-19 Virus","volume":"2","author":"Niu","year":"2020","journal-title":"China CDC Wkly."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daza-Torres, M.L., Garc\u00eda, Y.E., Schmidt, A.J., Pollock, B.H., Sharpnack, J., and Nu\u00f1o, M. (2022). The impact of COVID-19 vaccination on California\u2019s return to normalcy. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0264195"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.03.017","article-title":"Prevalence of comorbidities in the novel Wuhan coronavirus (COVID-19) infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"94","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e201","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(20)30026-1","article-title":"Early epidemiological analysis of the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak based on crowdsourced data: A population-level observational study","volume":"2","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Digit. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.03.031","article-title":"Transmission potential and severity of COVID-19 in South Korea","volume":"93","author":"Shim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2021.06.011","article-title":"Clinical manifestations and socio-demographic status of COVID-19 patients during the second-wave of pandemic: A Bangladeshi experience","volume":"14","author":"Ali","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2021.111507","article-title":"Aging & COVID-19 susceptibility, disease severity, and clinical outcomes: The role of entangled risk factors","volume":"154","author":"Farshbafnadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2035389","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine","volume":"384","author":"Baden","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabf4063","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf4063","article-title":"Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection","volume":"371","author":"Dan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2022.01.013","article-title":"Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in Bangladesh related to novel coronavirus infection","volume":"2","author":"Bhuiyan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJID Reg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vespa, S., Simeone, P., Catitti, G., Buca, D., De Bellis, D., Pierdomenico, L., Pieragostino, D., Cicalini, I., Del Boccio, P., and Natale, L. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 and Immunity: Natural Infection Compared with Vaccination. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23168982"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01410-w","article-title":"Impact of vaccination on new SARS-CoV-2 infections in the United Kingdom","volume":"27","author":"Pritchard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2036242","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine","volume":"384","author":"Skowronski","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2488","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa683","article-title":"Age-dependent gender differences in COVID-19 in Mainland China: Comparative study","volume":"71","author":"Qian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6317","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19741-6","article-title":"Male sex identified by global COVID-19 meta-analysis as a risk factor for death and ITU admission","volume":"11","author":"Peckham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pradhan, A., and Olsson, P.E. (2020). Sex differences in severity and mortality from COVID-19: Are males more vulnerable?. Biol. Sex Differ., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-020-00330-7"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1407","article-title":"Sex differences in mortality from COVID-19 pandemic: Are men vulnerable and women protected?","volume":"2","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05009","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.14.05009","article-title":"Clinical characterisation, treatment outcomes, and case fatality risk of patients with different SARS-CoV-2 variants in Bangladesh","volume":"14","author":"Afroze","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.3329\/ssmcj.v30i1.59373","article-title":"Demographic Profile of COVID-19 Cases: Laboratory Experience in a Tertiary Care Hospital of Dhaka City","volume":"30","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sir Salimullah Med. Coll. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e27281","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000027281","article-title":"Demographic profile and outcome of patients admitted to a COVID dedicated hospital in Bangladesh during the second wave","volume":"100","author":"Hossain","year":"2021","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1134","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1134","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants in Bangladesh: Pandemic to endemic","volume":"6","author":"Jubair","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-03672-3","article-title":"Omicron likely to weaken COVID vaccine protection","volume":"600","author":"Callaway","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.1114","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines and the Growing Threat of Viral Variants","volume":"325","author":"Moore","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abj2258","article-title":"Hybrid immunity","volume":"372","author":"Crotty","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/8\/1263\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:31:16Z","timestamp":1760110276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/8\/1263"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,7]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["v16081263"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v16081263","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,7]]}}}