{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T19:19:55Z","timestamp":1790882395235,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,18]],"date-time":"2024-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723939200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Influenza A virus (IAV) poses a global threat worldwide causing pandemics, epidemics, and seasonal outbreaks. Annual modification of vaccines is costly due to continual shifts in circulating genotypes, leading to inadequate coverage in low- and middle-income countries like India. Additionally, IAVs are evolving resistance to approved antivirals, necessitating a search for alternative treatments. In this study, the antiviral role of the FDA-approved antibiotic minocycline against IAV strains was evaluated in vitro and in vivo by quantifying viral gene expression by qRT-PCR, viral protein levels by Western blotting, and viral titers. Our findings demonstrate that minocycline at a non-toxic dose effectively inhibits IAV replication, regardless of viral strain or cell line. Its antiviral mechanism operates independently of interferon signaling by targeting the MEK\/ERK signaling pathway, which is crucial for the export of viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs). Minocycline prevents the assembly and release of infectious viral particles by causing the accumulation of vRNPs within the nucleus. Moreover, minocycline also inhibits IAV-induced late-stage apoptosis, further suppressing viral propagation. The antiviral activity of minocycline against IAVs could offer a promising solution amidst the challenges posed by influenza and the limitations of current treatments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16081317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,19]],"date-time":"2024-08-19T03:43:28Z","timestamp":1724039008000},"page":"1317","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Unveiling the Antiviral Potential of Minocycline: Modulation of Nuclear Export of Viral Ribonuclear Proteins during Influenza Virus Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Priyanka","family":"Saha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ritubrita","family":"Saha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ratul","family":"Datta Chaudhuri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rakesh","family":"Sarkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mehuli","family":"Sarkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hemanta","family":"Koley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Bacteriology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mamta","family":"Chawla-Sarkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Virology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata 700010, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trucchi, C., Paganino, C., Orsi, A., Amicizia, D., Tisa, V., Piazza, M.F., Gallo, D., Simonetti, S., Buonopane, B., and Icardi, G. (2019). Hospital and economic burden of influenza-like illness and lower respiratory tract infection in adults\u2265 50 years-old. BMC Health Serv. Res., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-019-4412-7"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-009-0062-5","article-title":"On the origin of influenza A hemagglutinin","volume":"49","author":"Gatherer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1702(03)00159-X","article-title":"Trafficking of viral genomic RNA into and out of the nucleus: Influenza, Thogoto and Borna disease viruses","volume":"95","author":"Cros","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2004.08.012","article-title":"Assembly and budding of influenza virus","volume":"106","author":"Nayak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"725","article-title":"Orthomyxoviridae: The viruses and their replication","volume":"4","author":"Lamb","year":"1995","journal-title":"Fields Virol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1616","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.011304-0","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of real-time PCR and conventional RT-PCR during a 2 year surveillance for influenza and respiratory syncytial virus among children with acute respiratory infections in Kolkata, India, reveals a distinct seasonality of infection","volume":"58","author":"Agrawal","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2010.07.019","article-title":"Genetic characterization of circulating seasonal Influenza A viruses (2005\u20132009) revealed introduction of oseltamivir resistant H1N1 strains during 2009 in eastern India","volume":"10","author":"Agrawal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"171","article-title":"Prevalence and epidemiology of pandemic H1N1 strains in hospitals of Eastern India","volume":"2","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Public Health Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-9-233","article-title":"Full genomic analysis of an influenza A (H1N2) virus identified during 2009 pandemic in Eastern India: Evidence of reassortment event between co-circulating A (H1N1) pdm09 and A\/Brisbane\/10\/2007-like H3N2 strains","volume":"9","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukherjee, A., Nayak, M.K., Dutta, S., Panda, S., Satpathi, B.R., and Chawla-Sarkar, M. (2016). Genetic characterization of circulating 2015 A (H1N1) pdm09 influenza viruses from Eastern India. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0168464"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmm.IJMM_18_272","article-title":"A study of influenza 2017\u20132018 outbreak in Andhra Pradesh, India","volume":"36","author":"Mudhigeti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.08.014","article-title":"A mid-term estimate of 2018\/2019 vaccine effectiveness to prevent laboratory confirmed A (H1N1) pdm09 and A (H3N2) influenza cases in Sicily (Italy)","volume":"37","author":"Costantino","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2020.104270","article-title":"Molecular characterization of Influenza A pandemic H1N1 viruses circulating in eastern India during 2017\u201319: Antigenic diversity in comparison to the vaccine strains","volume":"81","author":"Saha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2015.07.006","article-title":"New small-molecule drug design strategies for fighting resistant influenza A","volume":"5","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2016.05.004","article-title":"Current and novel antiviral strategies for influenza infection","volume":"18","author":"Yen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, G., Peng, C., Luo, J., Wang, C., Han, L., Wu, B., Ji, G., and He, H. (2015). Adamantane-resistant influenza a viruses in the world (1902\u20132013): Frequency and distribution of M2 gene mutations. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0119115"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10483","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1832501100","article-title":"Minocycline inhibits caspase-independent and-dependent mitochondrial cell death pathways in models of Huntington\u2019s disease","volume":"100","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.65.2.232-260.2001","article-title":"Tetracycline antibiotics: Mode of action, applications, molecular biology, and epidemiology of bacterial resistance","volume":"65","author":"Chopra","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"10","article-title":"Minocycline for acne vulgaris: Efficacy and safety","volume":"8","author":"Garner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.10092","article-title":"Inhibition of autoimmune encephalomyelitis by a tetracycline","volume":"51","author":"Popovic","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0804477","article-title":"Minocycline attenuates T cell and microglia activity to impair cytokine production in T cell-microglia interaction","volume":"78","author":"Giuliani","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200410050-00007","article-title":"Minocycline protects PC12 cells from ischemic-like injury and inhibits 5-lipoxygenase activation","volume":"15","author":"Song","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7566","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2002-04.2004","article-title":"Viral-induced spinal motor neuron death is non-cell-autonomous and involves glutamate excitotoxicity","volume":"24","author":"Darman","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2004.11.015","article-title":"Minocycline delays disease onset and mortality in reovirus encephalitis","volume":"192","author":"Tyler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1097\/01.jnen.0000263867.46070.e2","article-title":"Neuroprotective interventions targeting detrimental host immune responses protect mice from fatal alphavirus encephalitis","volume":"66","author":"Irani","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkm307","article-title":"Minocycline inhibits West Nile virus replication and apoptosis in human neuronal cells","volume":"60","author":"Michaelis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2008.05238.x","article-title":"Minocycline neuroprotects, reduces microglial activation, inhibits caspase 3 induction, and viral replication following Japanese encephalitis","volume":"105","author":"Mishra","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-010-9233-8","article-title":"Minocycline differentially modulates viral infection and persistence in an experimental model of Japanese encephalitis","volume":"5","author":"Dutta","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1086\/651277","article-title":"Minocycline attenuates HIV infection and reactivation by suppressing cellular activation in human CD4+ T cells","volume":"201","author":"Szeto","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-9-16","article-title":"Minocycline modulates antigen-specific CTL activity through inactivation of mononuclear phagocytes in patients with HTLV-I associated neurologic disease","volume":"9","author":"Matsuura","year":"2012","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2016.07.029","article-title":"Drug repurposing of minocycline against dengue virus infection","volume":"478","author":"Leela","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bawage, S.S., Tiwari, P.M., Pillai, S., Dennis, V.A., and Singh, S.R. (2019). Antibiotic minocycline prevents respiratory syncytial virus infection. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11080739"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(97)00301-0","article-title":"Development of a mammalian cell (Vero) derived candidate influenza virus vaccine","volume":"16","author":"Kistner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2515","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02286-09","article-title":"Establishment and characterization of a Madin-Darby canine kidney reporter cell line for influenza A virus assays","volume":"48","author":"Hossain","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, S.-C., Kappes, M.A., Chen, M.-C., Lin, C.-C., and Wang, T.T. (2017). Distinct susceptibility and applicability of MDCK derivatives for influenza virus research. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0172299"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.05.001","article-title":"Antiviral activity of formyl peptide receptor 2 antagonists against influenza viruses","volume":"143","author":"Courtin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2015.09.001","article-title":"Rotavirus disrupts cytoplasmic P bodies during infection","volume":"210","author":"Bhowmick","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6834","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00225-10","article-title":"Rotavirus nonstructural protein 1 suppresses virus-induced cellular apoptosis to facilitate viral growth by activating the cell survival pathways during early stages of infection","volume":"84","author":"Bagchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, M.-F., Liang, J.-H., Shen, Y.-N., Zhang, C.-W., Yang, K.-Y., Liu, L.-C., Xie, Q., Hu, C., Song, X., and Wang, Y. (2023). Coptisine Inhibits Influenza Virus Replication by Upregulating p21. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28145398"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fleming, S.B. (2016). Viral inhibition of the IFN-induced JAK\/STAT signalling pathway: Development of live attenuated vaccines by mutation of viral-encoded IFN-antagonists. Vaccines, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines4030023"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0962-8924(96)81017-8","article-title":"The role of nuclear import and export in influenza virus infection","volume":"6","author":"Bui","year":"1996","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1038\/35060098","article-title":"Influenza virus propagation is impaired by inhibition of the Raf\/MEK\/ERK signalling cascade","volume":"3","author":"Pleschka","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(04)00108-5","article-title":"MEK inhibition impairs influenza B virus propagation without emergence of resistant variants","volume":"561","author":"Ludwig","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16707","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M510233200","article-title":"Membrane accumulation of influenza A virus hemagglutinin triggers nuclear export of the viral genome via protein kinase C\u03b1-mediated activation of ERK signaling","volume":"281","author":"Marjuki","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1080\/08830180305216","article-title":"Influenza virus induction of apoptosis by intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms","volume":"22","author":"Lowy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F760","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00050.2004","article-title":"Minocycline inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in a rat model of ischemic renal injury","volume":"287","author":"Kelly","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Huang, P., Chen, H., Tan, W., Lu, J., Liu, W., Wang, J., Zhang, S., Zhu, W., and Cao, J. (2017). The inhibitory effect of minocycline on radiation-induced neuronal apoptosis via AMPK\u03b11 signaling-mediated autophagy. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-16693-8"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1538\/expanim.21-0028","article-title":"Minocycline attenuates neuronal apoptosis and improves motor function after traumatic brain injury in rats","volume":"70","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Anim."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Josset, L., Zeng, H., Kelly, S.M., Tumpey, T.M., and Katze, M.G. (2014). Transcriptomic Characterization of the Novel Avian-Origin Influenza A (H7N9) Virus: Specific Host Response and Responses Intermediate between Avian (H5N1 and H7N7) and Human (H3N2) Viruses and Implications for Treatment Options. mBio, 5.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01102-13"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fukushi, M., Ito, T., Oka, T., Kitazawa, T., Miyoshi-Akiyama, T., Kirikae, T., Yamashita, M., and Kudo, K. (2011). Serial histopathological examination of the lungs of mice infected with influenza A virus PR8 strain. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0021207"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)67338-2","article-title":"Incidence of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses isolated worldwide from 1994 to 2005: A cause for concern","volume":"366","author":"Bright","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.294","article-title":"Infections with oseltamivir-resistant influenza A (H1N1) virus in the United States","volume":"301","author":"Dharan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Jama"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.2008.007260-0","article-title":"High prevalence of amantadine resistance among circulating European porcine influenza A viruses","volume":"90","author":"Krumbholz","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2009.11.003","article-title":"Emergence of H274Y oseltamivir-resistant A (H1N1) influenza viruses in Japan during the 2008\u20132009 season","volume":"47","author":"Baranovich","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.2147\/JEP.S346006","article-title":"Antiviral activity of approved antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal and anthelmintic drugs: Chances for drug repurposing for antiviral drug discovery","volume":"14","author":"Abdulaziz","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Exp. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5269","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00686-10","article-title":"A derivate of the antibiotic doxorubicin is a selective inhibitor of dengue and yellow fever virus replication in vitro","volume":"54","author":"Kaptein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2021.11.008","article-title":"Pharmacologic profiling reveals lapatinib as a novel antiviral against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro","volume":"566","author":"Raymonda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.7164\/antibiotics.24.224","article-title":"Tunicamycin, a new antibiotic. II some biological properties of the antiviral activity of tunicamycin","volume":"24","author":"TAKATSUKI","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Antibiot."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Shutter, M., and Akhondi, H. (2023). Tetracycline, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab1013","article-title":"Infectious Diseases Society of America guidance on the treatment of AmpC \u03b2-lactamase\u2013producing Enterobacterales, carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia infections","volume":"74","author":"Tamma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.11150\/kansenshogakuzasshi.87.451","article-title":"A case of influenza pneumonia following pneumococcal infection in an adult patient with concurrent encephalopathy with a lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum","volume":"87","author":"Inoue","year":"2013","journal-title":"Kansenshogaku Zasshi J. Jpn. Assoc. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.76.2.817-828.2002","article-title":"Visna virus-induced activation of MAPK is required for virus replication and correlates with virus-induced neuropathology","volume":"76","author":"Barber","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4978","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.70.8.4978-4985.1996","article-title":"Hepatitis B virus HBx protein induces transcription factor AP-1 by activation of extracellular signal-regulated and c-Jun N-terminal mitogen-activated protein kinases","volume":"70","author":"Benn","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/0968-0004(94)90133-3","article-title":"The ins and outs of Raf kinases","volume":"19","author":"Daum","year":"1994","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3222","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.164.6.3222","article-title":"p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and c-jun-NH2-terminal kinase regulate RANTES production by influenza virus-infected human bronchial epithelial cells","volume":"164","author":"Kujime","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10990","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M009902200","article-title":"Influenza virus-induced AP-1-dependent gene expression requires activation of the JNK signaling pathway","volume":"276","author":"Ludwig","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4871","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.10.4871-4877.2001","article-title":"MEK-specific inhibitor U0126 blocks spread of Borna disease virus in cultured cells","volume":"75","author":"Planz","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9173","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.72.11.9173-9180.1998","article-title":"Extracellular signal-regulated kinase activity is sustained early during human cytomegalovirus infection","volume":"72","author":"Rodems","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5209","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.167.9.5209","article-title":"The vesicular stomatitis virus matrix protein inhibits glycoprotein 130-dependent STAT activation","volume":"167","author":"Terstegen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6751","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/19.24.6751","article-title":"Influenza A virus NS2 protein mediates vRNP nuclear export through NES-independent interaction with hCRM1","volume":"19","author":"Neumann","year":"2000","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2005.00678.x","article-title":"Ringing the alarm bells: Signalling and apoptosis in influenza virus infected cells","volume":"8","author":"Ludwig","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.19084","article-title":"The anti-apoptotic Bcl-B protein inhibits BECN1-dependent autophagic cell death","volume":"8","author":"Robert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau2818","article-title":"Pathogen blockade of TAK1 triggers caspase-8\u2013dependent cleavage of gasdermin D and cell death","volume":"362","author":"Orning","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-virology-110615-042435","article-title":"Viruses and the diversity of cell death","volume":"3","author":"Danthi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Virol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galluzzi, L., Brenner, C., Morselli, E., Touat, Z., and Kroemer, G. (2008). Viral control of mitochondrial apoptosis. PLoS Pathog., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000018"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, X., Jiang, W., Liu, Z., Liu, S., and Liang, X. (2017). Virus infection and death receptor-mediated apoptosis. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9110316"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsre.2004.12.003","article-title":"Role of apoptosis and cytokines in influenza virus morbidity","volume":"29","author":"Brydon","year":"2005","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.12139","article-title":"Minocycline: Far beyond an antibiotic","volume":"169","author":"Zarzuelo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/v17030396","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,18]],"date-time":"2024-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723939200000}}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/8\/1317\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,3]],"date-time":"2025-08-03T14:39:32Z","timestamp":1754231972000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/8\/1317"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,18]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["v16081317"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v16081317","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3390\/v17030396","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,18]]}}}