{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T21:55:02Z","timestamp":1783979702199,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":157,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]],"date-time":"2024-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724976000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Elimination of hepatitis C virus (HCV) without the need for medical intervention, known as spontaneous clearance (SC), occurs at a significantly lower rate than in the case of hepatitis B virus infection and only in selected individuals, such as reportedly in Keith Richards, a guitarist of The Rolling Stones. The present paper provides an updated narrative review of the research devoted to the phenomenon in order to identify and discuss the demographic, lifestyle-related, clinical, viral genotype-related, and host genetic factors underpinning the SC occurrence. The body of evidence indicates that the likelihood of SC is decreased in older individuals, men, Black people, HIV-coinfected subjects, and intravenous drug and alcohol users. In turn, HBV coinfection and specific polymorphism of the genes encoding interferon lambda 3 (particularly at rs8099917) and interferon lambda 4 (particularly at rs12979860) and HLA genes increase the odds of SC. Numerous other host-specific genetic factors could be implicated in SC, but the evidence is limited only to certain ethnic groups and often does not account for confounding variables. SC of HCV infection is a complex process arising from a combination of various factors, though a genetic component may play a leading role in some cases. Understanding factors influencing the likelihood of this phenomenon justifies better surveillance of high-risk groups, decreasing health inequities in particular ethnic groups, and may guide the development of a prophylactic vaccine, which at present is not available, or novel therapeutic strategies. Further research is needed to elucidate the exact mechanisms underlying SC and to explore potential interventions that could enhance this natural antiviral response.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16091386","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]],"date-time":"2024-08-30T06:46:29Z","timestamp":1725000389000},"page":"1386","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Like a Rolling Stone? A Review on Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4713-0801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Rzymski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Medicine, Pozna\u0144 University of Medical Sciences, 60-806 Pozna\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1180-9230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Brzd\u0119k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Collegium Medicum, Jan Kochanowski University, 25-317 Kielce, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0352-9893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krystyna","family":"Dobrowolska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Collegium Medicum, Jan Kochanowski University, 25-317 Kielce, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1601-1703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Poniedzia\u0142ek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Medicine, Pozna\u0144 University of Medical Sciences, 60-806 Pozna\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Murawska-Ochab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases, Provincial Integrated Hospital in Kielce, 25-736 Kielce, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0938-1084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dorota","family":"Zar\u0119bska-Michaluk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Allergology, Jan Kochanowski University, 25-317 Kielce, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3394-1635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Flisiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Medical University of Bia\u0142ystok, 15-540 Bia\u0142ystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2523562","article-title":"Isolation of a CDNA Clone Derived from a Blood-Borne Non-A, Non-B Viral Hepatitis Genome","volume":"244","author":"Choo","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2496467","article-title":"An Assay for Circulating Antibodies to a Major Etiologic Virus of Human Non-A, Non-B Hepatitis","volume":"244","author":"Kuo","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101596","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinre.2020.101596","article-title":"Epidemiology of Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"45","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/s43066-022-00232-w","article-title":"A Review on Hepatitis C Virus: Role of Viral and Host-Cellular Factors in Replication and Existing Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"12","author":"Butt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Egypt. Liver J."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"WHO (2023, May 14). Hepatitis C. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/hepatitis-c."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i6.949","article-title":"Decade of Optimizing Therapy with Direct-Acting Antiviral Drugs and the Changing Profile of Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C","volume":"29","author":"Invernizzi","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i13.2015","article-title":"Changes in Characteristics of Patients with Hepatitis C Virus-Related Cirrhosis from the Beginning of the Interferon-Free Era","volume":"29","author":"Rzymski","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1080\/14656566.2024.2358139","article-title":"Revolutionizing Hepatitis C Treatment: Next-Gen Direct-Acting Antivirals","volume":"25","author":"Dobrowolska","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12866","article-title":"Assessing Hepatitis C Spontaneous Clearance and Understanding Associated Factors\u2014A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Aisyah","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrufino, R.Q., Rodrigues, C., Figueiredo, G.M., Gleison, D., Yapura, S., de Matos, M.L.M., Witkin, S.S., and Mendes-Correa, M.C. (2023). Factors Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Recently Acquired Hepatitis C Virus among HIV-Positive Men in Brazil. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15020314"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2018.07.013","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus Infection Spontaneous Clearance: Has It Been Underestimated?","volume":"75","author":"Ayoub","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofaa095","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa095","article-title":"Re-Treatment of Hepatitis C Infection after Multiple Failures of Direct-Acting Antiviral Therapy","volume":"7","author":"Fierer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2021.03.004","article-title":"Treatment Failure with DAA Therapy: Importance of Resistance","volume":"74","author":"Sarrazin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2018.08.060","article-title":"Approaches, Progress, and Challenges to Hepatitis C Vaccine Development","volume":"156","author":"Bailey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rzymski, P., Jibril, A.T., Rahmah, L., Abarikwu, S.O., Hashem, F., Al Lawati, A., Morrison, F.M.M., Marquez, L.P., Mohamed, K., and Khan, A. (2024). Is There Still Hope for the Prophylactic Hepatitis C Vaccine? A Review of Different Approaches. J. Med. Virol.","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.29900"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barik, S. (2023). Suppression of Innate Immunity by the Hepatitis C Virus (HCV): Revisiting the Specificity of Host\u2013Virus Interactive Pathways. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242216100"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.284.4.450","article-title":"The Natural History of Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"284","author":"Thomas","year":"2000","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2005.00651.x","article-title":"Spontaneous Viral Clearance Following Acute Hepatitis C Infection: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies","volume":"13","author":"Micallef","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1086\/605947","article-title":"Acute Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Young Adult Injection Drug Users: A Prospective Study of Incident Infection, Resolution, and Reinfection","volume":"200","author":"Page","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.024","article-title":"The Effects of Alcohol on Spontaneous Clearance of Acute Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Females versus Males","volume":"169","author":"Tsui","year":"2016","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.3109\/00365548.2011.589077","article-title":"Correlates of Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus in a Danish Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Cohort","volume":"43","author":"Clausen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Scand. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1086\/507640","article-title":"Risk Factors and Outcome among a Large Patient Cohort with Community-Acquired Acute Hepatitis C in Italy","volume":"43","author":"Santantonio","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199904223401602","article-title":"Clinical Outcomes after Hepatitis C Infection from Contaminated Anti-D Immune Globulin","volume":"340","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25270","article-title":"High Spontaneous Clearance of Symptomatic Iatrogenic Acute Hepatitis C Genotype 4 Infection","volume":"90","author":"Hashem","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2019.04.035","article-title":"Prevalence of Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus Infection Doubled from 1998 to 2017","volume":"18","author":"Seo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(03)00391-3","article-title":"Spontaneous Resolution of Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Disease after Withdrawal of Immunosuppression","volume":"124","author":"Somsouk","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3044","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2001.04697.x","article-title":"Spontaneous Clearance of Chronic Hepatitis C during Pregnancy","volume":"96","author":"Zein","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1186\/s40792-024-01899-6","article-title":"Spontaneous Clearance of Serum HCV-RNA after Splenectomy in a Patient with HCV-Related Liver Cirrhosis and Portal Hypertension: A Case Report","volume":"10","author":"Ogata","year":"2024","journal-title":"Surg. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1002\/lt.20105","article-title":"Long-Term Immune Response after Liver Transplantation in Patients with Spontaneous or Post-Treatment HCV-RNA Clearance","volume":"10","author":"Ercilla","year":"2004","journal-title":"Liver Transpl."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-8278(02)00303-3","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus Eradication Associated with Hepatitis B Virus Superinfection and Development of a Hepatitis B Virus Specific T Cell Response","volume":"37","author":"Gruener","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1478-3231.1999.tb00060.x","article-title":"Clearance of HCV RNA in a Chronic Hepatitis C Virus-infected Patient during Acute Hepatitis B Virus Superinfection","volume":"19","author":"Wietzke","year":"1999","journal-title":"Liver"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-007-7204-7","article-title":"Clearance of Chronic HCV Infection during Acute Delta Hepatitis","volume":"37","author":"Deterding","year":"2009","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.10448","article-title":"Spontaneous Elimination of Serum Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) RNA in Chronic HCV Carriers: A Population-based Cohort Study","volume":"71","author":"Watanabe","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1086\/500938","article-title":"High Rate of Spontaneous Negativity for Hepatitis C Virus RNA after Establishment of Chronic Infection in Alaska Natives","volume":"42","author":"Scott","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2006.01.023","article-title":"Resolution of HCV Infection after Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in a HIV\u2013HCV Coinfected Patient","volume":"53","author":"Audagnotto","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.21489","article-title":"Case Report: Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus after Changing the HAART Regimen in a Patient Infected with Hepatitis C Virus and the Human Immunodeficiency Virus","volume":"81","author":"Endo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e48","DOI":"10.1258\/ijsa.2009.009333","article-title":"Spontaneous Clearance of Chronic Hepatitis C Infection in a Patient with a 20-Year-Old HIV\u2013Hepatitis C Co-Infection and Chronic Active Hepatitis","volume":"23","author":"Manfredi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. STD AIDS"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2016.04.030","article-title":"Factors Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"65","author":"Bulteel","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1111\/hiv.12466","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) RNA Profiles among Chronic HIV\/HCV-coinfected Individuals in ESPRIT.; Spontaneous HCV RNA Clearance Observed in Nine Individuals","volume":"18","author":"Grint","year":"2017","journal-title":"HIV Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e607","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac680","article-title":"Low Spontaneous Clearance Rates of Recently Acquired Hepatitis C Virus in Human Immunodeficiency Virus\u2013Positive Men Who Have Sex with Men (PROBE-C Study)","volume":"76","author":"Monin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2023.100701","article-title":"Expanding Epidemic of Recently Acquired HCV in HIV-Coinfected Patients over a Period of 10 Years","volume":"5","author":"Graf","year":"2023","journal-title":"JHEP Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ulitzky, L., Lafer, M.M., KuKuruga, M.A., Silberstein, E., Cehan, N., and Taylor, D.R. (2016). A New Signaling Pathway for HCV Inhibition by Estrogen: GPR30 Activation Leads to Cleavage of Occludin by MMP-9. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0145212"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6802","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v23.i37.6802","article-title":"Estrogen Receptor Expression in Chronic Hepatitis C and Hepatocellular Carcinoma Pathogenesis","volume":"23","author":"Iyer","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.13303","article-title":"17,\u0392-estradiol Inhibits Hepatitis C Virus Mainly by Interference with the Release Phase of Its Life Cycle","volume":"37","author":"Magri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbaglia, M.N., Harris, J.M., Smirnov, A., Burlone, M.E., Rigamonti, C., Pirisi, M., Minisini, R., and Magri, A. (2022). 17\u03b2-Oestradiol Protects from Hepatitis C Virus Infection through Induction of Type I Interferon. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14081806"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.20463","article-title":"Progression of Liver Fibrosis in Women Infected with Hepatitis C: Long-Term Benefit of Estrogen Exposure","volume":"40","author":"Martino","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hbpd.2020.03.011","article-title":"Critical Role of Estrogen in the Progression of Chronic Liver Diseases","volume":"19","author":"Ezhilarasan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatobiliary Pancreat. Dis. Int."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.90","article-title":"Sex Differences in Immune Responses","volume":"16","author":"Klein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI126277","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus\u2013Specific CD4+ T Cell Phenotype and Function in Different Infection Outcomes","volume":"130","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2019.102619","article-title":"Frequency of Injecting among People Who Inject Drugs: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"76","author":"Colledge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.35946\/arcr.v40.2.01","article-title":"Gender Differences in the Epidemiology of Alcohol Use and Related Harms in the United States","volume":"40","author":"White","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alcohol Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2006.101931","article-title":"Liver Fibrosis in Women with Chronic Hepatitis C: Evidence for the Negative Role of the Menopause and Steatosis and the Potential Benefit of Hormone Replacement Therapy","volume":"56","author":"Codes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ562","article-title":"Spontaneous Clearance of the Hepatitis C Virus among Men Who Have Sex with Men","volume":"61","author":"Seaberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.14.1878","article-title":"Factors Influencing a Low Rate of Hepatitis C Viral RNA Clearance in Heroin Users from Southern China","volume":"14","author":"Garten","year":"2008","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-07-2781","article-title":"Correlates of Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus among People with Hemophilia","volume":"107","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.22271","article-title":"Demographics, Socio-behavioral Factors, and Drug Use Patterns: What Matters in Spontaneous HCV Clearance?","volume":"84","author":"Shah","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simanis, R., Lejniece, S., Sochnevs, A., Eglite, J., Chernevska, G., Kovalova, Z., Gardovska, D., Jeruma, A., Kuse, V., and Viksna, L. (2007). Natural Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus in Hemophilia Patients. Medicina, 44.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina44010003"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.5152\/tjg.2019.18328","article-title":"IL-28B Genetic Variation, Gender, Age, Jaundice, Hepatitis C Virus Genotype, and Hepatitis B Virus and HIV Co-Infection in Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"30","author":"Fedorchenko","year":"2019","journal-title":"Turk. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-014-2311-0","article-title":"Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatitis C Virus Infection among HIV-1-Infected Injection Drug Users in Dali, China: Prevalence and Infection Status in a Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"160","author":"Dong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van den Berg, C.H.B.S., Grady, B.P.X., Schinkel, J., van de Laar, T., Molenkamp, R., van Houdt, R., Coutinho, R.A., van Baarle, D., and Prins, M. (2011). Female Sex and IL28B, a Synergism for Spontaneous Viral Clearance in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Seroconverters from a Community-Based Cohort. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027555"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2005.078147","article-title":"Higher Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Females Compared with Males","volume":"55","author":"Bakr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, F., Pan, Y., Chi, X., Wang, X., Chen, L., Lv, J., Sun, H., Wu, R., Jin, J., and Yu, G. (2014). Factors Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus in Chinese Population. Biomed Res. Int., 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/527030"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1746.2011.06880.x","article-title":"Outcome of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Chinese Paid Plasma Donors: A 12\u201319-year Cohort Study","volume":"27","author":"Rao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1086\/592171","article-title":"Spontaneous Viral Clearance, Viral Load, and Genotype Distribution of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) in HIV-infected Patients with Anti-HCV Antibodies in Europe","volume":"198","author":"Soriano","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-015-2703-9","article-title":"Association of IL28B Rs8099917 Genotype and Female Sex with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus Infection: A Japanese Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"161","author":"Ikezaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/796325","article-title":"Factors Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus among Illicit Drug Users","volume":"21","author":"Grebely","year":"2007","journal-title":"Can. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimble, M.M., Javanbakht, M., Chew, K.W., Stafylis, C., He, D., Ramirez, S., Baik, Y., Saab, S., and Klausner, J.D. (2019). Sociodemographic and Clinical Characteristics of Persons Who Experienced Spontaneous Hepatitis C Viral Clearance. BMC Infect. Dis., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-019-4223-9"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1086\/654882","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus Prevalence and Clearance among US Blood Donors, 2006\u20132007: Associations with Birth Cohort, Multiple Pregnancies, and Body Mass Index","volume":"202","author":"Murphy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-012-2486-8","article-title":"Racial\/Ethnic Differences in Spontaneous HCV Clearance in HIV Infected and Uninfected Women","volume":"58","author":"Sarkar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2010.02634.x","article-title":"A Case-control Study of Factors Associated with Resolution of Hepatitis C Viremia in Former Blood Donors (CME)","volume":"50","author":"Tobler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08309","article-title":"Genetic Variation in IL28B Predicts Hepatitis C Treatment-Induced Viral Clearance","volume":"461","author":"Ge","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08463","article-title":"Genetic Variation in IL28B and Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"461","author":"Thomas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"906","article-title":"Race, Healthcare, and Health Disparities: A Critical Review and Recommendations for Advancing Health Equity","volume":"24","author":"Collins","year":"2023","journal-title":"West. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-021-00368-9","article-title":"Proportion and Reasons for Loss to Follow-Up in a Cohort Study of People Who Inject Drugs to Measure HIV and HCV Incidence in Kerman, Iran","volume":"16","author":"Mousavian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Subst. Abus. Treat. Prev. Policy"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.13399","article-title":"Loss to Follow-up in the Hepatitis C Care Cascade: A Substantial Problem but Opportunity for Micro-elimination","volume":"27","author":"Drenth","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14469","article-title":"Frequent Loss to Follow-up after Diagnosis of Hepatitis C Virus Infection: A Barrier towards the Elimination of Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"40","author":"Aleman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-199509000-00008","article-title":"Morphine Inhibits Spontaneous and Cytokine-Enhanced Natural Killer Cell Cytotoxicity in Volunteers","volume":"83","author":"Yeager","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3908(90)90096-A","article-title":"Morphine Inhibition of Lymphocyte Activity Is Mediated by an Opioid Dependent Mechanism","volume":"29","author":"Bayer","year":"1990","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-328X(98)00212-5","article-title":"MU-Opioid Receptor-Knockout Mice: Role of \u03bc-Opioid Receptor in Morphine Mediated Immune Functions","volume":"61","author":"Roy","year":"1998","journal-title":"Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2249.1997.4581355.x","article-title":"Impairment of Natural Killer (NK) Cytotoxic Activity in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection","volume":"109","author":"Corado","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1080\/09629359890992","article-title":"Circulating Th1 and Th2 Cytokines in Patients with Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"7","author":"Fan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2006.11.016","article-title":"Chronic Ethanol Consumption Impairs Cellular Immune Responses against HCV NS5 Protein Due to Dendritic Cell Dysfunction","volume":"132","author":"Aloman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G566","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00183.2015","article-title":"Acetaldehyde Accelerates HCV-Induced Impairment of Innate Immunity by Suppressing Methylation Reactions in Liver Cells","volume":"309","author":"Ganesan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2004-832942","article-title":"Alcohol and Hepatitis C","volume":"24","author":"Safdar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Semin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.7895\/ijadr.407","article-title":"The Socioeconomic Profile of Alcohol Use in Europe: Findings from 33 European Countries","volume":"11","author":"Kilian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Alcohol Drug Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idcr.2019.e00534","article-title":"Chronic Alcohol Abuse and Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"17","author":"Pott","year":"2019","journal-title":"IDCases"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2246604","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.46604","article-title":"Association between Alcohol Use Disorder and Receipt of Direct-Acting Antiviral Hepatitis C Virus Treatment","volume":"5","author":"Haque","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12198","article-title":"Differences in Hepatitis C Virus Prevalence and Clearance by Mode of Acquisition among Men Who Have Sex with Men","volume":"21","author":"Seaberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poustchi, H., Esmaili, S., Mohamadkhani, A., Nikmahzar, A., Pourshams, A., Sepanlou, S.G., Merat, S., and Malekzadeh, R. (2011). The Impact of Illicit Drug Use on Spontaneous Hepatitis C Clearance: Experience from a Large Cohort Population Study. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023830"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morard, I., Cl\u00e9ment, S., Calmy, A., Mangia, A., Cerny, A., De Gottardi, A., Gorgievski, M., Heim, M., Malinverni, R., and Moradpour, D. (2014). Clinical Significance of the CCR5delta32 Allele in Hepatitis C. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0106424"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.1840400419","article-title":"Influence of Alcohol Use, Race, and Viral Coinfections on Spontaneous HCV Clearance in a US Veteran Population","volume":"40","author":"Piasecki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.13401","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of HCV Clearance","volume":"37","author":"Gauthiez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1887","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2006.09.052","article-title":"Interferons \u03b1 and \u03bb Inhibit Hepatitis C Virus Replication with Distinct Signal Transduction and Gene Regulation Kinetics","volume":"131","author":"Marcello","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1722","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1168988","article-title":"CD24 and Siglec-10 Selectively Repress Tissue Damage-Induced Immune Responses","volume":"323","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.175.2.437","article-title":"Heat-Stable Antigen Is a Costimulatory Molecule for CD4 T Cell Growth","volume":"175","author":"Liu","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.12506","article-title":"CD24 Ala57Val Polymorphism Is Associated with Spontaneous Viral Clearance in the HCV-Infected Chinese Population","volume":"35","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grzegorzewska, A.E., Mostowska, A., Warcho\u0142, W., and Jagodzi\u0144ski, P.P. (2021). Paraoxonase 1 Gene (PON1) Variants Concerning Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Spontaneous Clearance in Hemodialysis Individuals: A Case\u2013Control Study. BMC Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06597-4"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1007\/s10238-022-00930-0","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Paraoxonase-1 Activity in Asthma","volume":"23","author":"Bassu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Tom\u00e0s, E., Iftimie, S., Casta\u00f1\u00e9, H., Baiges-Gaya, G., Hern\u00e1ndez-Aguilera, A., Gonz\u00e1lez-Vi\u00f1as, M., Castro, A., Camps, J., and Joven, J. (2021). Clinical Performance of Paraoxonase-1-Related Variables and Novel Markers of Inflammation in Coronavirus Disease-19. A Machine Learning Approach. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202105.0623.v1"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0b013e31823817f5","article-title":"Temporal Association between Increased Virus-Specific Th17 Response and Spontaneous Recovery from Recurrent Hepatitis C in a Liver Transplant Recipient","volume":"92","author":"Seetharam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kared, H., Fabre, T., B\u00e9dard, N., Bruneau, J., and Shoukry, N.H. (2013). Galectin-9 and IL-21 Mediate Cross-Regulation between Th17 and Treg Cells during Acute Hepatitis C. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003422"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Z., Li, Y., Long, L., Liang, H., Cai, W., and Shen, T. (2018). Polymorphisms in the Th17 Cell-Related RORC Gene Are Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of HCV in Chinese Women. BMC Infect. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-018-3153-2"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.03.1068","article-title":"Expression of Mx1, OAS1, PKR (EIF2AK2) and TP53 Genes during Treatment of Chronic HCV Patients","volume":"21","author":"Januszkiewicz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25531","article-title":"Association of HLA-DQB1*03:01 and DRB1*11:01 with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus in Chinese Li Ethnicity, an Ethnic Group Genetically Distinct from Chinese Han Ethnicity and Infected with Unique HCV Subtype","volume":"91","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1038\/jhg.2015.145","article-title":"A Novel Polymorphism near HLA Class II Region Is Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of HCV and Response to Interferon Treatment in Chinese Patients","volume":"61","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedergnana, V., Abdel-Hamid, M., Guergnon, J., Mohsen, A., Le Fouler, L., Theodorou, I., Mohamed, M.K., Fontanet, A., Plancoulaine, S., and Abel, L. (2012). Analysis of IL28B Variants in an Egyptian Population Defines the 20 Kilobases Minimal Region Involved in Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038578"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.24263","article-title":"Estimating the Net Contribution of Interleukin-28B Variation to Spontaneous Hepatitis C Virus Clearance","volume":"53","author":"Ciuffi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grzegorzewska, A.E., Mostowska, A., \u015awiderska, M.K., Marcinkowski, W., Stolarek, I., Figlerowicz, M., and Jagodzi\u0144ski, P.P. (2021). Polymorphism Rs368234815 of Interferon Lambda 4 Gene and Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus in Haemodialysis Patients: A Case-Control Study. BMC Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-05777-6"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.06.035","article-title":"Comparison of Functional Variants in IFNL4 and IFNL3 for Association with HCV Clearance","volume":"63","author":"Pfeiffer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M.-H., Yang, H.-I., Lu, S.-N., Lin, Y.-J., Jen, C.-L., Wong, K.-H., Chan, S.-Y., Chen, L.-C., Wang, L.-Y., and L\u2019Italien, G. (2015). Polymorphisms near the IFNL3 Gene Associated with HCV RNA Spontaneous Clearance and Hepatocellular Carcinoma Risk. Sci. Rep., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep17030"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-021-01557-9","article-title":"SNPs of the IFNL Favour Spontaneous Clearance of HCV Infection in Children","volume":"91","author":"Mangone","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2011.01497.x","article-title":"IL28B Genetic Variants and Gender Are Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"19","author":"Rao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Indolfi, G., Mangone, G., Bartolini, E., Nebbia, G., Calvo, P.L., Moriondo, M., Tovo, P.-A., de Martino, M., Azzari, C., and Resti, M. (2014). Comparative Analysis of Rs12979860 SNP of the IFNL3 Gene in Children with Hepatitis C and Ethnic Matched Controls Using 1000 Genomes Project Data. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0085899"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5736","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1016358108","article-title":"Innate Immune Genes Synergize to Predict Increased Risk of Chronic Disease in Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"108","author":"Dring","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir536","article-title":"Genetic Polymorphism in IL28B Is Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 4 Infection in an Egyptian Cohort","volume":"204","author":"Kurbanov","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2011.04.005","article-title":"A Polymorphism in IL28B Distinguishes Exposed, Uninfected Individuals from Spontaneous Resolvers of HCV Infection","volume":"141","author":"Knapp","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2469","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-021-05141-8","article-title":"Correlation between IL-28 Polymorphism and Spontaneous Clearance in HCV Patients: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"166","author":"Miri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit433","article-title":"Association of the IFNL4-\u0394G Allele with Impaired Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"209","author":"Aka","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3324\/haematol.2011.050351","article-title":"IL28B Polymorphisms Influence Stage of Fibrosis and Spontaneous or Interferon-Induced Viral Clearance in Thalassemia Patients with Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"97","author":"Bronte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Haematologica"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2010.07.005","article-title":"A Polymorphism near IL28B Is Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Acute Hepatitis C Virus and Jaundice","volume":"139","author":"Tillmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2011.03.011","article-title":"The Predictive Value of IL28B Gene Polymorphism for Spontaneous Clearance in a Single Source Outbreak Cohort Is Limited in Patients Carrying the CCR5\u039432 Mutation","volume":"55","author":"Nattermann","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.14070","article-title":"Interferon \u039b3 Gene (IL28B) Is Associated with Spontaneous or Treatment-induced Viral Clearance in Hepatitis C Virus\u2013Infected Multitransfused Patients with Thalassemia","volume":"57","author":"Biswas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.24482","article-title":"Genetic Variation in Interleukin-28B Locus Is Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of HCV in Children with Non-1 Viral Genotype Infection","volume":"54","author":"Indolfi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2011.0096","article-title":"IL28B Polymorphism Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Infection in a Southern Brazilian HIV Type 1 Population","volume":"28","author":"Lunge","year":"2012","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S452","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-8278(10)61171-3","article-title":"1170 Il28b c\/c Polymorphism Is Predictive of Spontaneous Hcv RNA Clearance in Patients with Thalassemia Major","volume":"52","author":"Mangia","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, X., Pan, Y., Wang, M., Wang, D., Li, W., Jiang, T., Zhang, P., Chi, X., Jiang, Y., and Gao, Y. (2012). IL28B Genetic Variation Is Associated with Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus, Treatment Response, Serum IL-28B Levels in Chinese Population. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0037054"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2009.12.056","article-title":"Genetic Variation in IL28B Is Associated with Chronic Hepatitis C and Treatment Failure: A Genome-Wide Association Study","volume":"138","author":"Rauch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268817002928","article-title":"Influence of IL28B and MxA Gene Polymorphisms on HCV Clearance in Han Chinese Population","volume":"146","author":"Zang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-020-00592-0","article-title":"HCV Genotypes and Their Determinative Role in Hepatitis C Treatment","volume":"31","author":"Keikha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virusdisease"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02831-14","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 7, a New Genotype Originating from Central Africa","volume":"53","author":"Murphy","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1722","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy401","article-title":"Identification of a Novel Hepatitis C Virus Genotype from Punjab, India: Expanding Classification of Hepatitis C Virus into 8 Genotypes","volume":"218","author":"Borgia","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mbisa, J.L., Lapp, Z., Bibby, D.F., Phillips, L.T., Manso, C.F., Packer, S., Simmons, R., Harris, K., Mohan, J., and Chinnappan, L. (2024). Identification of Two Novel Subtypes of Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 8 and a Potential New Genotype Successfully Treated with Direct Acting Antivirals. J. Infect. Dis., jiae253.","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiae253"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.13.2.223","article-title":"Clinical Significance of Hepatitis C Virus Genotypes","volume":"13","author":"Zein","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.26639","article-title":"The Effects of Female Sex, Viral Genotype, and IL28B Genotype on Spontaneous Clearance of Acute Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"59","author":"Grebely","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.20103","article-title":"High Rate of Spontaneous Clearance of Acute Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 3 Infection","volume":"73","author":"Lehmann","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1474","DOI":"10.1086\/522608","article-title":"Acute Hepatitis C in a Contemporary US Cohort: Modes of Acquisition and Factors Influencing Viral Clearance","volume":"196","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2010.04.013","article-title":"Interleukin-28B Polymorphism Improves Viral Kinetics and Is the Strongest Pretreatment Predictor of Sustained Virologic Response in Genotype 1 Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"139","author":"Thompson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir647","article-title":"IL28B Rs12979860 Genotype and Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus in a Multi-Ethnic Cohort of Injection Drug Users: Evidence for a Supra-Additive Association","volume":"204","author":"Shebl","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7555","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i24.7555","article-title":"Impact of Hepatitis C Virus Heterogeneity on Interferon Sensitivity: An Overview","volume":"20","author":"Hotta","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasianchuk, N., Dobrowolska, K., Harkava, S., Bretcan, A., Zar\u0119bska-Michaluk, D., Jaroszewicz, J., Flisiak, R., and Rzymski, P. (2023). Gene-Editing and RNA Interference in Treating Hepatitis B: A Review. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15122395"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.22951","article-title":"Hepatitis B and C Virus Coinfection: A Novel Model System Reveals the Absence of Direct Viral Interference","volume":"50","author":"Bellecave","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_142","first-page":"E1264","article-title":"Complete Replication of Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatitis C Virus in a Newly Developed Hepatoma Cell Line","volume":"111","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1478-3231.2007.01477.x","article-title":"Profound Suppression of Chronic Hepatitis C Following Superinfection with Hepatitis B Virus","volume":"27","author":"Coffin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v9.i9.2012","article-title":"Spontaneous Viral Clearance after 6\u201321 Years of Hepatitis B and C Viruses Coinfection in High HBV Endemic Area","volume":"9","author":"Fan","year":"2003","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4046","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V94.12.4046","article-title":"Dual or Single Hepatitis B and C Virus Infections in Childhood Cancer Survivors: Long-Term Follow-up and Effect of Interferon Treatment","volume":"94","author":"Utili","year":"1999","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5184","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03553-13","article-title":"Limited Hepatitis B Virus Replication Space in the Chronically Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Liver","volume":"88","author":"Wieland","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_147","first-page":"221","article-title":"The Spectrum of HBV\/HCV Coinfection: Epidemiology, Clinical Characteristics, Viralinteractions and Management","volume":"28","author":"Konstantinou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"1691","article-title":"An Update on the Treatment Options for HBV\/HCV Coinfection","volume":"18","author":"Sagnelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2020.1776112","article-title":"Management of Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Coinfection: An Expert Review","volume":"18","author":"Flisiak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12644","article-title":"HBV\/HCV Co-infection Is Associated with a High Level of HCV Spontaneous Clearance among Drug Users and Blood Donors in China","volume":"24","author":"Xiong","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2013.09.023","article-title":"High Hepatitis B Virus Surface Antigen Levels and Favorable Interleukin 28B Genotype Predict Spontaneous Hepatitis C Virus Clearance in Uremic Patients","volume":"60","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2015.04.001","article-title":"Modeling the Effect of HIV Coinfection on Clearance and Sustained Virologic Response during Treatment for Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"12","author":"Birger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2007.11.005","article-title":"Spontaneous HCV Clearance in HCV\/HIV-1 Coinfection Associated with Normalized CD4 Counts, Low Level of Chronic Immune Activation and High Level of T Cell Function","volume":"41","author":"Falconer","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328330ed24","article-title":"Acute Hepatitis C in HIV-Infected Patients: Rare Spontaneous Clearance Correlates with Weak Memory CD4 T-Cell Responses to Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"23","author":"Schnuriger","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106570","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/2106570","article-title":"Mathematical Modelling of HIV-HCV Coinfection Dynamics in Absence of Therapy","volume":"2020","author":"Mayanja","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Math. Methods Med."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000000275","article-title":"Spontaneous Hepatitis C Virus Clearance in HIV Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C Bearing IL28B-CC Alleles Using Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"28","author":"Vispo","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.22207\/JPAM.13.2.59","article-title":"The Negative Effect of Epstein-Barr Virus on the Response of Hepatitis C Virus Patients to Interferon-Ribavirin Therapy","volume":"13","author":"Attia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Pure Appl. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/9\/1386\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:45:35Z","timestamp":1760111135000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/9\/1386"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]},"references-count":157,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["v16091386"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v16091386","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]}}}