{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:16:05Z","timestamp":1787030165761,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,15]],"date-time":"2024-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FoRUM research grant of the Ruhr-University Bochum","award":["F1020N-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["F1020N-21"]}]},{"name":"DFG Open Access Publication fund","award":["F1020N-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["F1020N-21"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Immune responses of the epithelia of the upper respiratory tract are likely crucial in early inhibition of the viral replication and finally clearance of SARS-CoV-2. We aimed to compare the expression profiles of antimicrobial peptides\/proteins (AMPs) and related cytokines observed in the nasopharynx of SARS-CoV-2-infected patients and non-infected controls and to assess the associations between these parameters and COVID-19 patients\u2019 outcomes. We included 45 subjects who had tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 and 22 control subjects who had tested negative for SARS-CoV-2. Biomaterial for SARS-CoV-2 detection, as well as gene and protein expression studies, was obtained from all subjects using nasopharyngeal swabs which were performed a maximum of 7 days before inclusion in the study. Univariable and multivariable statistics were performed. When compared to the controls, the mRNA expression levels of human \u03b2-defensin 1 (hBD-1), LL-37, and trappin-2 were significantly higher in specimens of nasopharyngeal swabs from COVID-19 patients. Protein expression of hBD-1 was also increased in the COVID-19 group. mRNA expression levels of interferon-\u0263 (IFN-\u0263), tumor necrosis factor- \u0251 (TNF-\u0251), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) measured in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients were significantly higher than those observed in the controls, which could also be confirmed in the protein levels of IFN-\u0263 and IL-6. A significant correlation between mRNA and protein levels could be observed only for IL-6. Univariable analysis revealed that low IFN-\u0263 mRNA levels were associated with severe\/fatal outcomes. The occurrence of COVID-19 pneumonia was significantly associated with lower expression levels of IL-6 mRNA, IFN-\u0263 mRNA, and TNF-\u0251 mRNA. Concerning the severe\/fatal outcomes, the multivariable logistic regression model revealed that none of the aforementioned parameters remained significant in the model. However, the logistic regression model revealed that higher TNF-\u0251 mRNA expression was a significant independent predictor of absence of pneumonia [odds ratio: 0.35 (95% CI 0.14 to 0.88, p = 0.024)]. In conclusion, nasopharyngeal expression of AMPs (hBD-1, LL-37, and trappin-2) and cytokines (IL-6, IFN-\u0263, and TNF-\u0251) is upregulated in response to early SARS-CoV-2 infection, indicating that these AMPs and cytokines play a role in the local host defense against the virus. Upregulated nasopharyngeal TNF-\u0251 mRNA expression during the early phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection was a significant independent predictor of the absence of COVID-19 pneumonia. Hence, high TNF-\u0251 mRNA expression in the nasopharynx appears to be a protective factor for lung complications in COVID-19 patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16091471","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,16]],"date-time":"2024-09-16T04:14:07Z","timestamp":1726460047000},"page":"1471","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Epithelial Antimicrobial Peptide\/Protein and Cytokine Expression Profiles Obtained from Nasopharyngeal Swabs of SARS-CoV-2-Infected and Non-Infected Subjects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7862-3695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thilo","family":"Gambichler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Dortmund Hospital, Faculty of Health, School of Medicine, University Witten\/Herdecke, 44137 Dortmund, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Christian Hospital Unna, 59423 Unna, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silke","family":"Goesmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Skrygan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Susok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Dortmund Hospital, Faculty of Health, School of Medicine, University Witten\/Herdecke, 44137 Dortmund, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Sch\u00fctte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3053-0008","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nahza","family":"Hamdani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Experimental Cardiology, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Physiology, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5077","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S474707","article-title":"Interplay of TLR4 and SARS-CoV-2: Unveiling the Complex Mechanisms of Inflammation and Severity in COVID-19 Infections","volume":"17","author":"Asaba","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. 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