{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T22:11:39Z","timestamp":1785363099706,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]],"date-time":"2024-12-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733443200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Florida Legislature","award":["LBR2199"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBR2199"]}]},{"name":"Florida Legislature","award":["P20GM130448"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM130448"]}]},{"name":"Florida Legislature","award":["75N93021C00016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00016"]}]},{"name":"National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF) Transition Fund","award":["LBR2199"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBR2199"]}]},{"name":"National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF) Transition Fund","award":["P20GM130448"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM130448"]}]},{"name":"National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF) Transition Fund","award":["75N93021C00016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00016"]}]},{"name":"MCB Core of the Center on Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (CEZID) of the National Institutes of General Medical Sciences","award":["LBR2199"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBR2199"]}]},{"name":"MCB Core of the Center on Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (CEZID) of the National Institutes of General Medical Sciences","award":["P20GM130448"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM130448"]}]},{"name":"MCB Core of the Center on Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (CEZID) of the National Institutes of General Medical Sciences","award":["75N93021C00016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00016"]}]},{"name":"NIAID supported Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response (CEIRR)","award":["LBR2199"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBR2199"]}]},{"name":"NIAID supported Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response (CEIRR)","award":["P20GM130448"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM130448"]}]},{"name":"NIAID supported Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response (CEIRR)","award":["75N93021C00016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00016"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been detected in multiple animal species, including white-tailed deer (WTD), raising concerns about zoonotic transmission, particularly in environments with frequent human interactions. To understand how human exposure influences SARS-CoV-2 infection in WTD, we compared infection and exposure prevalence between farmed and free-ranging deer populations in Florida. We also examined the timing and viral variants in WTD relative to those in Florida\u2019s human population. Between 2020 and 2022, we collected respiratory swabs (N = 366), lung tissue (N = 245), retropharyngeal lymph nodes (N = 491), and serum specimens (N = 381) from 410 farmed and 524 free-ranging WTD. Specimens were analyzed using RT-qPCR for infection and serological assays for exposure. SARS-CoV-2 infection was detected in less than 1% of both northern Florida farmed (0.85%) and free-ranging (0.76%) WTD. No farmed deer possessed virus-neutralizing antibodies, while one free-ranging WTD tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (3.45%). Viral sequences in infected WTD matched peaks in human cases and circulating variants, indicating human-to-deer spillover but at a lower frequency than reported elsewhere. Our findings suggest a reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2 spillover to WTD in northern Florida compared to other regions, highlighting the need for further research on transmission dynamics across North America.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16121886","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]],"date-time":"2024-12-06T03:44:47Z","timestamp":1733456687000},"page":"1886","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Low Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in Farmed and Free-Ranging White-Tailed Deer in Florida"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Savannah G.","family":"Grace","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristen N.","family":"Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rayann","family":"Dorleans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zoe S.","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruiyu","family":"Pu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7195-785X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natasha N.","family":"Gaudreault","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Medicine\/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3666-0214","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konner","family":"Cool","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Medicine\/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7098-731X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan M.","family":"Campos Krauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura E.","family":"Franklin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bambi C.","family":"Clemons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kuttichantran","family":"Subramaniam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"},{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7308-5672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juergen A.","family":"Richt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Medicine\/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4069-0539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John A.","family":"Lednicky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"},{"name":"Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5337-9024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maureen T.","family":"Long","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1748-4518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samantha M.","family":"Wisely","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2114828118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2114828118","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 exposure in wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)","volume":"118","author":"Chandler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00083-21","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00083-21","article-title":"Susceptibility of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"95","author":"Palmer","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3002.231093","article-title":"Experimental infection of elk (Cervus canadensis) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) with SARS-CoV-2","volume":"30","author":"Porter","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boggiatto, P.M., Buckley, A., Cassmann, E.D., Seger, H., Olsen, S.C., and Palmer, M.V. (2024). Persistence of viral RNA in North American elk experimentally infected with an ancestral strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-61414-7"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6210","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-49891-w","article-title":"Widespread exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in wildlife communities","volume":"15","author":"Goldberg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22311","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2010146117","article-title":"Broad host range of SARS-CoV-2 predicted by comparative and structural analysis of ACE2 in vertebrates","volume":"117","author":"Damas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2021.2012528","article-title":"Infection and transmission of ancestral SARS-CoV-2 and its alpha variant in pregnant white-tailed deer","volume":"11","author":"Cool","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martins, M., Boggiatto, P.M., Buckley, A., Cassmann, E.D., Falkenberg, S., Caserta, L.C., Fernandes, M.H.V., Kanipe, C., Lager, K., and Palmer, M.V. (2022). From Deer-to-Deer: SARS-CoV-2 is efficiently transmitted and presents broad tissue tropism and replication sites in white-tailed deer. PLoS Pathog., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1010197"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04353-x","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection in free-ranging white-tailed deer","volume":"602","author":"Hale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2121644119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2121644119","article-title":"Multiple spillovers from humans and onward transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in white-tailed deer","volume":"119","author":"Kuchipudi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-022-01268-9","article-title":"Divergent SARS-CoV-2 variant emerges in white-tailed deer with deer-to-human transmission","volume":"7","author":"Pickering","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vandegrift, K.J., Yon, M., Surendran, N.M., Gontu, A., Ramasamy, S., Amirthalingam, S., Neerukonda, S., Nissly, R.H., Chothe, S.K., and Jakka, P. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529) Infection of Wild White-Tailed Deer in New York City. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4104389"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"62","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibodies in White-Tailed Deer from Texas","volume":"22","author":"Palermo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4078","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-39782-x","article-title":"Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in free-ranging white-tailed deer in the United States","volume":"14","author":"Feng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.108319","article-title":"Genomic and transcriptomic characterization of delta SARS-CoV-2 infection in free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)","volume":"26","author":"Kotwa","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marques, A.D., Sherrill-Mix, S., Everett, J.K., Adhikari, H., Reddy, S., Ellis, J.C., Zeliff, H., Greening, S.S., Cannuscio, C.C., and Strelau, K.M. (2022). Multiple introductions of SARS-CoV-2 alpha and delta variants into white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. mBio, 13.","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02101-22"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2215067120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2215067120","article-title":"White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may serve as a wildlife reservoir for nearly extinct SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern","volume":"120","author":"Caserta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2023.0144","article-title":"Evidence of SARS-CoV-2 Antibody in Mississippi White-Tailed Deer","volume":"24","author":"Hearst","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bevins, S.N., Chipman, R.B., Beckerman, S.F., Bergman, D.L., Collins, D.T., Deliberto, T.J., Deliberto, T.J., Eckery, J.P., Ellis, J.W., and Gosser, A.L. (2023). SARS-CoV-2 occurrence in white-tailed deer throughout their range in the conterminous United States. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.04.14.533542"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eckstrand, C.D., Baldwin, T.J., Rood, K.A., Clayton, M.J., Lott, J.K., Wolking, R.M., Bradway, D.S., and Baszler, T. (2021). An outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 with high mortality in mink (Neovison vison) on multiple Utah farms. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.06.09.447754"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2020.101922","article-title":"Corona\u2019s new coat: SARS-CoV-2 in Danish minks and implications for travel medicine","volume":"38","author":"Larsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2024, February 03). North American Deer Farmers Association (NADeFA). Available online: https:\/\/nadefa.org\/about-us\/#mission."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.7589\/2019-02-034","article-title":"Antibodies to epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) in farmed and wild Florida white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)","volume":"56","author":"Cauvin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2022.2090282","article-title":"Absence of SARS-CoV-2 in a captive white-tailed deer population in Alabama, USA","volume":"11","author":"Barua","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roundy, C.M., Nunez, C.M., Thomas, L.F., Auckland, L.D., Tang, W., Richison, J.J., Green, B.R., Hilton, C.D., Cherry, M.J., and Pauvolid-Corr\u00eaa, A. (2022). High Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) at One of Three Captive Cervid Facilities in Texas. Microbiol. Spectr., 10.","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00576-22"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2024, July 02). CDC 2019-Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic Panel, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/134922\/download."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.09.025","article-title":"Viable SARS-CoV-2 in the air of a hospital room with COVID-19 patients","volume":"100","author":"Lednicky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3264","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.33.12.3264-3269.1995","article-title":"Isolation of coronaviruses antigenically indistinguishable from bovine coronavirus from wild ruminants with diarrhea","volume":"33","author":"Tsunemitsu","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2322","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1833687","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection, disease and transmission in domestic cats","volume":"9","author":"Gaudreault","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00129-3","article-title":"Neutralisation sensitivity of the SARS-CoV-2 omicron (B.1.1.529) variant: A cross-sectional study","volume":"22","author":"Sheward","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2024, July 02). Florida Health Charts, Available online: https:\/\/www.flhealthcharts.gov\/ChartsDashboards\/."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbx108","article-title":"MAFFT online service: Multiple sequence alignment, interactive sequence choice and visualization","volume":"20","author":"Katoh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msu300","article-title":"IQ-TREE: A fast and effective stochastic algorithm for estimating maximum-likelihood phylogenies","volume":"32","author":"Nguyen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-023-02139-3","article-title":"Genome analysis of SARS-CoV-2 isolates from a population reveals the rapid selective sweep of a haplotype carrying many pre-existing and new mutations","volume":"20","author":"Bhattacharjee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2024, July 02). COVID Data Tracker, Available online: https:\/\/covid.cdc.gov\/covid-data-tracker."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2112","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2022.2112913","article-title":"Persistence of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies longer than 13 months in naturally infected, captive white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Texas","volume":"11","author":"Hamer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenblatt, E., Cook, J.D., DiRenzo, G.V., Grant, E.H.C., Arce, F., Pepin, K.M., Rudolph, F.J., Runge, M.C., Shriner, S., and Walsh, D.P. (2024). Epidemiological modeling of SARS-CoV-2 in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) reveals conditions for introduction and widespread transmission. PLoS Comput. Biol., 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012263"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/12\/1886\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:48:16Z","timestamp":1760114896000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/16\/12\/1886"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v16121886"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v16121886","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]]}}}