{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T22:39:53Z","timestamp":1776465593883,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIAID\/NIH","award":["U01AI151799"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01AI151799"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although the highlands of East Africa lack the geo-ecological landmarks of Rift Valley fever (RVF) disease hotspots to participate in cyclic RVF epidemics, they have recently reported growing numbers of small RVF clusters. Here, we investigated whether RVF cycling occurred among livestock and humans in the central highlands of Kenya during inter-epidemic periods. A 2-year prospective hospital-based study among febrile patients (March 2022\u2013February 2024) in Murang\u2019a County of Kenya was followed by a cross-sectional human\u2013animal survey. A total of 1468 febrile patients were enrolled at two clinics and sera tested for RVF virus RNA and antiviral antibodies. In the cross-sectional study, humans (n = 282) and livestock (n = 706) from randomly selected households were tested and questionnaire data were used to investigate sociodemographic and environmental risk factors by multivariate logistic regression. No human (n = 1750) or livestock (n = 706) sera tested positive for RVFV RNA. However, 4.4% livestock and 2.0% humans tested positive for anti-RVFV IgG, including 0.27% febrile patients who showed four-fold IgG increase and 2.4% young livestock (&lt;12 months old), indicating recent virus exposure. Among humans, the odds of RVF exposure increased significantly (p &lt; 0.05, 95% CI) in males (aOR: 4.77, 2.08\u201312.4), those consuming raw milk (aOR: 5.24, 1.13\u201317.9), milkers (aOR: 2.69, 1.23\u20136.36), and participants residing near quarries (aOR: 2.4, 1.08\u20135.72). In livestock, sheep and goats were less likely to be seropositive (aOR: 0.27, 0.12\u20130.60) than cattle. The increase in RVF disease activities in the highlands represents a widening geographic dispersal of the virus, and a greater risk of more widespread RVF epidemics in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v16121927","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T03:46:02Z","timestamp":1734407162000},"page":"1927","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Serological Evidence of Cryptic Rift Valley Fever Virus Transmission Among Humans and Livestock in Central Highlands of Kenya"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9257-4647","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Situma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00202, Kenya"},{"name":"Washington State University Global Health Program-Kenya, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"},{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Pwani University, Kilifi 80108, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1779-1043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evans","family":"Omondi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), Nairobi 00100, Kenya"},{"name":"Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Strathmore University, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2944-9157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luke","family":"Nyakarahuka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"},{"name":"Department of Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Ecosystems and Veterinary Public Health, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raymond","family":"Odinoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University Global Health Program-Kenya, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2497-2424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marshal","family":"Mweu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00202, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9119-3167","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marianne W.","family":"Mureithi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00202, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9613-5425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin M.","family":"Mulinge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00100, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Erin","family":"Clancey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 98165, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jeanette","family":"Dawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University Global Health Program-Kenya, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"},{"name":"Center for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00202, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Isaac","family":"Ngere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University Global Health Program-Kenya, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"},{"name":"Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 98165, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Osoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University Global Health Program-Kenya, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"},{"name":"Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 98165, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bronwyn","family":"Gunn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 98165, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Limbaso","family":"Konongoi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samoel A.","family":"Khamadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2328-1269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johan","family":"Michiels","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1340-4165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin K.","family":"Ari\u00ebn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Barnabas","family":"Bakamutumaho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7099-2936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert F.","family":"Breiman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kariuki","family":"Njenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University Global Health Program-Kenya, Nairobi 00200, Kenya"},{"name":"Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 98165, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1700340418","article-title":"Enzootic Hepatitis or Rift Valley Fever. 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