{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T20:52:21Z","timestamp":1790801541501,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]],"date-time":"2025-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737676800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004442","name":"National Science Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UMO-2020\/39\/B\/NZ7\/00493"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UMO-2020\/39\/B\/NZ7\/00493"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004442","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Veterinary Research Institute","award":["UMO-2020\/39\/B\/NZ7\/00493"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UMO-2020\/39\/B\/NZ7\/00493"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most economically significant diseases of pigs caused by African swine fever virus (ASFV). Due to the lack of effective and safe vaccines, one of the crucial measures to protect farms from the introduction of the ASFV is to apply a strict regime of biosecurity and disinfection. However, in field conditions, the activity of disinfectants may be influenced by temperature, resulting in reduced activity or biodegradation (i.e., freezing or evaporating). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a wide range of temperatures on the virucidal activity of selected active substances commonly used against ASFV. Eight active substances were tested, namely: sodium hypochlorite (1.0%), glutaraldehyde (0.1%), potassium peroxysulfate (0.5%), caustic soda (1.0%), phenol (1.0%), acetic acid (3.0%), benzalkonium chloride (1.0%), and formaldehyde (0.4%). The virucidal activity of each compound was tested at different temperatures (21, \u221210, and \u221220 \u00b0C for 30 min) and compared to the initial virus titer under the same temperature conditions. Exposure to a range of temperatures did not significantly affect the virucidal efficacy of tested active substances against ASFV. Most of the evaluated substances had reduced virus titers \u2265 4 log10, regardless of the temperature. However, two of them (benzalkonium chloride and acetic acid) were sensitive to sub-zero temperatures, showing a lack of the required 4 log10 virus titer reduction. The conducted study showed that temperature could hamper the virucidal effect of selected substances (i.e., benzalkonium chloride and acetic acid), showing their moderate efficacy against ASFV \u221210 \u00b0C and \u221220 \u00b0C. The results suggest that extreme caution should be taken while applying these substances at sub-zero temperatures. The other substances had no significant sensitivity to the temperature range. Nevertheless, in the case of freezing the agent, insufficient penetration of the disinfected surface may occur, which may result in an ineffective disinfection process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17020156","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]],"date-time":"2025-01-24T03:26:31Z","timestamp":1737689191000},"page":"156","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Influence of the Temperature on Effectiveness of Selected Disinfectants Against African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5705-4099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Juszkiewicz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Swine Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzant\u00f3w 57 Avenue, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2991-9964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marek","family":"Walczak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Swine Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzant\u00f3w 57 Avenue, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1333-4275","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Wo\u017aniakowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious, Invasive Diseases and Veterinary Administration, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, Lwowska 1 Street, 87-100 Toru\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zygmunt","family":"Pejsak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Veterinary Medicine Centre UJ-UR, University of Agriculture, al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7608-6926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Podg\u00f3rska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Swine Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzant\u00f3w 57 Avenue, 24-100 Pu\u0142awy, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12740","article-title":"Why is African swine fever still present in Sardinia?","volume":"65","author":"Jurado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"European Commission (2024, October 22). Commission Recognises Sardinia and Sweden as Free of African Swine Fever. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/commission\/presscorner\/detail\/en\/mex_24_4841."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2020.198099","article-title":"African swine fever\u2014A review of current knowledge","volume":"287","author":"Blome","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.k3774","article-title":"African swine fever in China","volume":"183","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2019.104861","article-title":"African swine fever emerging in China: Distribution characteristics and high-risk areas","volume":"175","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"USDA (2023). Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Krajowy O\u015brodek Wsparcia Rolnictwa (2023). Sytuacja Poda\u017cowo-Popytowa i Cenowa na Rynku Wieprzowiny."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2024, October 22). GIW General Veterinary Inspectorate\/G\u0142\u00f3wny Inspektorat Weterynarii. Afrykanski Pom\u00f3r \u015awi\u0144 (ASF), Available online: https:\/\/bip.wetgiw.gov.pl\/asf\/mapa\/."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) (2024). African Swine Fever (ASF)\u2014Situation Report 47, World Organisation for Animal Health (WAHIS)."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Long, T.H. (2024, October 22). Summary of Information African Swine Fever Vaccine in Viet Nam. Available online: https:\/\/rr-asia.woah.org\/app\/uploads\/2023\/09\/8-5-vietnam-asf_vaccines.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"921","article-title":"Vaccination against ASF","volume":"60","author":"Sobral","year":"1963","journal-title":"Bull. Off. Int. Epizoot."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0964-8305(98)00022-5","article-title":"The effect of practical conditions on the efficacy of disinfectants","volume":"41","author":"Bessems","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, World Organization for Animal Health, and World Bank Animal Production and Health (2010). Good Practices for Biosecurity in the Pig Sector, FAO."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"United States Deparment of Agriculture (2018). The Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness & Response Plan, Standard Operating Procedures: 15. Cleaning and Disinfection."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1128\/am.25.1.115-122.1973","article-title":"Effects of some disinfectants on African swine fever virus","volume":"25","author":"Stone","year":"1973","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.24425\/pjvs.2019.131407","article-title":"Virucidal effect of chosen disinfectants against African swine fever virus (ASFV)\u2014Preliminary studies","volume":"22","author":"Juszkiewicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juszkiewicz, M., Walczak, M., Mazur-Panasiuk, N., and Wo\u017aniakowski, G. (2020). Effectiveness of chemical compounds used against african swine fever virus in commercial available disinfectants. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9110878"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frost, L., Tully, M., Dixon, L., Hicks, H.M., Bennett, J., Stokes, I., Marsella, L., Gubbins, S., and Batten, C. (2023). Evaluation of the Efficacy of Commercial Disinfectants against African Swine Fever Virus. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12070855"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.04.029","article-title":"Disinfection of transboundary animal disease viruses on surfaces used in pork packing plants","volume":"219","author":"Krug","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hierholzer, J.C., and Killington, R.A. (1996). Virus isolation and quantitation. Virology Methods Manual, Academy Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012465330-6\/50003-8"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Mayr, A., Bachmann, P.A., Bibrack, B., and Wittmann, G. (1977). Virologische Arbeitsmethoden: Band II (Serologie), Gustav Fischer Verlag."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Cycle, L. (2013). African Swine Fever Aetiology, World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2013). Chemical Disinfectants and Antiseptics-Quantitative Suspension Test for The Evaluation of Virucidal Activity of Chemical Disinfectants and Antiseptics Used in the Veterinary Area\u2014Test Method and Requirements (Phase 2, Step 1) (Standard No. PN-EN:14675-2015)."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2024). African Swine Fever (ASF) Situation Update in Asia & Pacific, FAO."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stefanello, A., Fracari, J.C., Silva, M., Lemos, J.G., Garcia, M.V., dos Santos, B.A., and Copetti, M.V. (2021). Influence of type, concentration, exposure time, temperature, and presence of organic load on the antifungal efficacy of industrial sanitizers against Aspergillus brasiliensis (ATCC 16404). Food Microbiol., 97.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2021.103740"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1590\/1806-9061-2019-1055","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of the Effects of Binzalkonium Chloride, Iodine, Gluteraldehyde and Hydrogen Peroxide Disinfectants against Avian Salmonellae Focusing on Genotypic Resistance Pattern of the Salmonellae Serotypes toward Benzalkonium Chloride","volume":"22","author":"Aksoy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Braz. J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2013-03452","article-title":"Evaluation of changes induced by temperature, contact time, and surface in the efficacies of disinfectants against avian influenza virus","volume":"93","author":"Jang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2011.06.016","article-title":"Chemical disinfection of high-consequence transboundary animal disease viruses on nonporous surfaces","volume":"39","author":"Krug","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-023-00573-1","article-title":"pH\u2014Dependent virucidal effects of weak acids against pathogenic viruses","volume":"52","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Z., Han, J., Zhang, X., Yan, Z., and Wei, Q. (2024). Effective of different industrial disinfection in subzero cold\u2014Chain environment. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-62204-x"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.4236\/jmp.2018.92007","article-title":"Evaluating the Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Production of Caustic Soda from Brine","volume":"9","author":"Ujile","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.12.1.147","article-title":"Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance","volume":"12","author":"Donnell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00490216","article-title":"Glutaraldehyde. The Influence of pH, Temperature, and Buffering on the Polymerization Rate","volume":"26","author":"Rasmussen","year":"1974","journal-title":"Histochemistry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGinley, H.R., Enzien, M.V., Jenneman, G., and Harris, J. (2011, January 11\u201313). Studies on the Chemical Stability of Glutaraldehyde in Produced Water. Proceedings of the Paper Presented at the SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, The Woodlands, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.2118\/141449-MS"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1097\/01.don.0000153846.62144.d2","article-title":"The Effects of Temperature on Sodium Hypochlorite Short-Term Stability, Pulp Dissolution Capacity, and Antimicrobial Efficacy","volume":"31","author":"Sirtes","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1128\/am.16.5.787-791.1968","article-title":"Sporicidal Activity of Sodium Hypochlorite at Subzero Temperatures","volume":"16","author":"Jones","year":"1968","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1998.tb05255.x","article-title":"Efficacy and mechanisms of action of sodium hypochlorite on Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 phage F116","volume":"85","author":"Maillard","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1590\/S0103-64402002000200007","article-title":"Mechanism of Action of Sodium Hypochlorite","volume":"13","author":"Estrela","year":"2002","journal-title":"Braz. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1834-7819.2001.tb00291.x","article-title":"The shelf-life of sodium hypochlorite irrigating solutions","volume":"46","author":"Clarkson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aust. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.4067\/S0716-10182017000200010","article-title":"Antis\u00e9pticos y desinfectantes: Apuntando al uso racional. Recomendaciones del Comit\u00e9 Consultivo de Infecciones Asociadas a la Atenci\u00f3n de Salud, Sociedad Chilena de Infectolog\u00eda","volume":"34","author":"Diomedi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Infectol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1980.tb01217.x","article-title":"Antimicrobial Activity, Uses and Mechanism of Action of Glutaraldehyde","volume":"48","author":"Gorman","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Eickmann, U., Bloch, M., Falcy, M., Halsen, G., and Merz, B. (2014). Use of disinfectants in the health care sector: Chemical hazards and preventive measures Factsheet 3: Hazards of chemical disinfectants. International Social Security Association (ISSA), ISSA International Section on Prevention of Occupational Risks in Health Services."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2007). Chemical Safety in the Workplace, Guidance Notes on Safe Use of Chemical Disinfectants."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/2\/156\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:35:01Z","timestamp":1759919701000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/2\/156"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["v17020156"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17020156","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]}}}