{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T16:35:37Z","timestamp":1790094937846,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":14,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,3]],"date-time":"2025-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738540800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province","award":["2023A1515011927"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023A1515011927"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province","award":["2023B1212010010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023B1212010010"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogen Detection for Emerging Infectious Disease Response","award":["2023A1515011927"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023A1515011927"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogen Detection for Emerging Infectious Disease Response","award":["2023B1212010010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023B1212010010"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: In 2024, mainland China witnessed a significant upsurge in Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) cases. Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) is one of the primary causative agents of HFMD. Long-term monitoring of theCVA16 infection rate and genotype changes is crucial for the prevention and control of HFMD. Methods: A total of 40,673 clinical specimens were collected from suspected HFMD cases in Guangdong province from 2018 to 2024, including rectal swabs (n = 27,954), throat swabs (n = 6791), stool (n = 5923), cerebrospinal fluid (n = 3), and herpes fluid (n = 2). A total of 24,410 samples were detected as EV-positive and further typed by RT-PCR. A total of 872 CVA16-positive samples were isolated and further sequenced to obtain the full-length VP1 sequence. Phylogenetic analysis was performed based on viral protein 1 gene (VP1). Results: In the first 25 weeks of 2024, reported cases of HFMD were 1.36 times higher than the mean rates of 2023. In 2024, CVA16 predominated at 75.42%, contrasting with the past etiological pattern in which the CVA6 was predominant with the detection rate ranging from 32.85 to 77.61% from 2019 to 2023. Phylogenetic analysis based on the VP1 gene revealed that the B1a and B1b subtypes co-circulated in Guangdong from 2018 to 2022. The B1c outbreak clade, detected in Guangdong in 2023, constituted 68.24% of the 148 strains of CVA16 collected in 2024, suggesting a subtype shift in the CVA16 virus. There were three specific amino acid variations (P3S, I235V, and T240A) in the VP1 sequence of B1c. Conclusions: The new emergence of the CVA16 B1c outbreak clade in Guangdong during 2023\u20132024 highlights the necessity for the enhanced surveillance of the virus evolution epidemiological dynamic in this region. Furthermore, it is imperative to closely monitor the etiological pattern changes in Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) in other regions as well. Such vigilance will be instrumental in guiding future vaccination strategies for HFMD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17020219","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,3]],"date-time":"2025-02-03T05:36:32Z","timestamp":1738560992000},"page":"219","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["The Emergence of Coxsackievirus A16 Subgenotype B1c: A Key Driver of the Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease Epidemic in Guangdong, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Huiling","family":"Zeng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Institution of Public Health, Guangdong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 511430, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogen Detection for Emerging Infectious Disease Response, Guangdong Workstation for Emerging Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 511430, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8507-9944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Biao","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogen Detection for Emerging Infectious Disease Response, Guangdong Workstation for Emerging Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 511430, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lina","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Institution of Public Health, Guangdong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 511430, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogen Detection for Emerging Infectious Disease Response, Guangdong Workstation for Emerging Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 511430, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5957-2132","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lin","family":"Qu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Institution of Public Health, Guangdong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 511430, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogen Detection for Emerging Infectious Disease Response, Guangdong Workstation for Emerging Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Guangdong Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 511430, China"},{"name":"School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, 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