{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T16:49:32Z","timestamp":1781801372372,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,6]],"date-time":"2025-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741219200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pigs serve as critical reservoirs and amplifiers for numerous zoonotic viral diseases, presenting substantial public health challenges in India. This study highlights the epidemiology and emerging trends of key zoonotic viruses associated with pigs, emphasizing their role in endemic and emerging disease dynamics. Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) persists as a major concern, with pigs acting as amplifying host, while hepatitis E virus (HEV) remains a prominent cause of viral hepatitis, transmitted via contaminated water and pork products. Emerging high-fatality viral zoonoses caused by Nipah virus (NiV) and recurrent threats from swine influenza virus (SIV) demonstrate that the zoonotic landscape is evolving. Furthermore, zoonotic viruses like rotavirus, pseudorabies (ADV or SuHV-1), porcine astrovirus (PAstV), and Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) reflect the expanding diversity of pig-associated pathogens in India. Emerging evidence also implicates viruses such as Chandipura virus (CHPV) in localized outbreaks, indicating broader zoonotic potential. Novel risks such as swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2 emphasize the role of pigs as potential intermediaries for pandemic-prone viruses. This comprehensive study evaluates the prevalence, outbreak dynamics, and public health implications of zoonotic viral diseases of pigs in India, providing valuable direction for developing effective control measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17030381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,6]],"date-time":"2025-03-06T06:02:13Z","timestamp":1741240933000},"page":"381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Epidemiology and Emerging Trends of Zoonotic Viral Diseases of Pigs in India"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Swaraj","family":"Rajkhowa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Research Centre on Pig, Rani, Guwahati 781131, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1635-7202","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joyshikh","family":"Sonowal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Assam Agricultural University, Sribhumi 788712, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seema Rani","family":"Pegu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Research Centre on Pig, Rani, Guwahati 781131, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8670-4583","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajib","family":"Deb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Research Centre on Pig, Rani, Guwahati 781131, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vivek Kumar","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Research Centre on Pig, Rani, Guwahati 781131, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M.T., Sobur, M.A., Islam, M.S., Ievy, S., Hossain, M.J., El Zowalaty, M.E., Rahman, A.T., and Ashour, H.M. (2020). Zoonotic Diseases: Etiology, Impact and Control. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8091405"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.13178","article-title":"Zoonotic and reverse zoonotic transmission of viruses between humans and pigs","volume":"129","author":"Glud","year":"2021","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2356143","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2356143","article-title":"Climate change, its impact on emerging infectious diseases and new technologies to combat the challenge","volume":"13","author":"Liao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.26902","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis: The virus and vaccines","volume":"10","author":"Yun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"77","article-title":"The first epidemic of Japanese encephalitis studies in India-virological studies","volume":"63","author":"Chakravarti","year":"1975","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S16","DOI":"10.1093\/jtm\/tay009","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis: The vectors, ecology and potential for expansion","volume":"25","author":"Pearce","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Travel. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hameed, M., Wahaab, A., Nawaz, M., Khan, S., Nazir, J., Liu, K., Wei, J., and Ma, Z. (2021). Potential Role of Birds in Japanese Encephalitis Virus Zoonotic Transmission and Genotype Shift. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202101.0549.v1"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2024, August 06). Japanese Encephalitis. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/japanese-encephalitis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.2174\/1874357901812010121","article-title":"Japanese Encephalitis: A Brief Review on Indian Perspectives","volume":"12","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pegu, S.R., Das, P.J., Sonowal, J., Sengar, G.S., Deb, R., Yadav, A.K., Rajkhowa, S., Choudhury, M., Gulati, B.R., and Gupta, V.K. (2023). Japanese Encephalitis Virus Genotype III Strains Detection and Genome Sequencing from Indian Pig and Mosquito Vector. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11010150"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hick, P.M., Finlaison, D.S., Parrish, K., Gu, X., Hayton, P., O\u2019Connor, T., Read, A., Zhang, J., Spiers, Z.B., and Pinczowski, P. (2024). Experimental Infections of Pigs with Japanese Encephalitis Virus Genotype 4. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12112163"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Augustyniak, A., and Pomorska-M\u00f3l, M. (2023). An Update in Knowledge of Pigs as the Source of Zoonotic Pathogens. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13203281"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2017.01.014","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals","volume":"201","author":"Mansfield","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_2606_19","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis virus in India: An update on virus genotypes","volume":"156","author":"Rajaiah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) (2025, March 02). Vaccine Developed. \u201cVero Cell Based Inactivated JE Vaccine Candidate for Pigs\u201d. Available online: https:\/\/www.ivri.nic.in\/Technologies\/Vaccines.aspx."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-8278(01)00297-5","article-title":"Human and swine hepatitis E viruses from Western India belong to different genotypes","volume":"36","author":"Arankalle","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5543","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v26.i37.5543","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus: Epidemiology, diagnosis, clinical manifestations, and treatment","volume":"26","author":"Aslan","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000940","article-title":"ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Hepeviridae","volume":"98","author":"Purdy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. General. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Songtanin, B., Molehin, A.J., Brittan, K., Manatsathit, W., and Nugent, K. (2023). Hepatitis E Virus Infections: Epidemiology, Genetic Diversity, and Clinical Considerations. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202306.0456.v1"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2009.03.017","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus: Animal reservoirs and zoonotic risk","volume":"140","author":"Meng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5047","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.42.11.5047-5052.2004","article-title":"Routes of transmission of swine hepatitis E virus in pigs","volume":"42","author":"Kasorndorkbua","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-020-01343-9","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus infection during pregnancy","volume":"17","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-023-09564-1","article-title":"First Seroepidemiological Investigation of Hepatitis E Virus Infection in Backyard Pigs from Northeastern India: Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors","volume":"15","author":"Milton","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Environ. Virol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12363","article-title":"Seroepidemiology and molecular characterization of hepatitis E virus infection in swine and occupationally exposed workers in Punjab, India","volume":"64","author":"Bansal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2893.2001.00290.x","article-title":"Prevalence of anti-hepatitis E virus antibodies in different Indian animal species","volume":"8","author":"Arankalle","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2006.00815.x","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus infection among animals in northern India: An unlikely source of human disease","volume":"14","author":"Shukla","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-2700.50744","article-title":"Swine influenza A (H1N1) strikes a potential for global disaster","volume":"2","author":"Galwankar","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Trauma. Shock."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakre, A.A., Jones, L.P., Kyriakis, C.S., Hanson, J.M., Bobbitt, D.E., Bennett, H.K., Todd, K.V., Orr-Burks, N., Murray, J., and Zhang, M. (2020). Molecular epidemiology and glycomics of swine influenza viruses circulating in commercial swine farms in the southeastern and midwest United States. Vet. Microbiol., 251.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2020.108914"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"160","article-title":"Influenza A H1N1 virus in Indian pigs & its genetic relatedness with pandemic human influenza A 2009 H1N1","volume":"132","author":"Nagarajan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2753","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-021-02520-x","article-title":"Widespread Prevalence of Antibodies Against Swine Influenza A (pdm H1N1 09) Virus in Pigs of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India","volume":"78","author":"Senthilkumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Swine flu and the current influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in humans: A review","volume":"33","author":"Pawaiya","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1816","article-title":"Sero-prevelance and pathology of important viral pathogens causing reproductive problems in domestic pigs of NE India","volume":"5","author":"Pegu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Entomol. Zool. Stud."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2009.02.076","article-title":"Rotaviruses: From pathogenesis to vaccination","volume":"136","author":"Greenberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadiq, A., and Khan, J. (2024). Rotavirus in developing countries: Molecular diversity, epidemiological insights, and strategies for effective vaccination. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1297269"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ball, L.A. (2005). The universal taxonomy of viruses in theory and practice. Virus Taxonomy, Elsevier. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-249951-7.50003-1"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-011-1006-z","article-title":"Uniformity of rotavirus strain nomenclature proposed by the Rotavirus Classification Working Group (RCWG)","volume":"156","author":"Matthijnssens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M., Griffin, D.E., Lamb, R.A., Martin, M.A., Roizman, B., and Straus, S.E. (2007). Rotaviruses. Fields Virology, Kluwer Health\/Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"111","article-title":"Epidemiology and genetic diversity of rotavirus strains associated with acute gastroenteritis in bovine, porcine, poultry and human population of Madhya Pradesh, Central India 2004\u20132008","volume":"1","author":"Malik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-021-00659-6","article-title":"Molecular characterization of porcine group A rotavirus to contain piglet diarrhea for productivity enhancement in North East India","volume":"32","author":"Das","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virusdisease"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"21266","article-title":"Detection of swine rotavirus and transmissible gastroenteritis virus in piglets with diarrhoea by sandwich ELISA","volume":"68","author":"Barman","year":"1998","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"576","article-title":"Prevalence of rotavirus, transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus antibodies in pigs of Assam, India","volume":"73","author":"Barman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"40","article-title":"Isolation of rotavirus in MA 104 cell line from diarrhoeic piglets of Assam","volume":"18","author":"Bora","year":"2007","journal-title":"Indian J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-012-0267-1","article-title":"Prevalence and genotypic (G and P) determination of porcine group A rotaviruses from different regions of India","volume":"45","author":"Dubal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-018-0435-7","article-title":"Frequency distribution of porcine rotavirus\u2014A and capsid protein gene based sequence and phylogenetic analysis indicating marked heterogeneity among prevailing strains, India","volume":"29","author":"Kattoor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virusdisease"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-010-0016-y","article-title":"Genomic diversity among group A rotaviruses from diarrheic children, piglets, buffalo and cow calves of Madhya Pradesh","volume":"50","author":"Kusumakar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-013-0153-0","article-title":"Circulation of group A rotaviruses among neonates of human, cow and pig: Study from Assam, a north eastern state of India","volume":"24","author":"Sharma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Indian J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.5958\/0973-9149.2017.00012.0","article-title":"Detection and Genotypic Characterisation of Rotavirus from Piglets and In-Contact Children of Assam, a North-Eastern State of India","volume":"19","author":"Ahmed","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2503","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268814003343","article-title":"Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of rotavirus VP7-encoding gene from humans and animals of Northeast India: A relative study of Indian and global isolates","volume":"143","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"1295","article-title":"Chandipura: A new Arbovirus isolated in India from patients with febrile illness","volume":"55","author":"Bhatt","year":"1967","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"769","article-title":"Isolation of Chandipura virus (Vesiculovirus: Rhabdoviridae) from Sergentomyia species of sandflies from Nagpur, Maharashtra, India","volume":"139","author":"Sudeep","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"69","article-title":"Incidence of neutralizing antibodies to Chandipura virus in domestic animals from Karimnagar and Warangal Districts of Andhra Pradesh, India","volume":"49","author":"Joshi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.4103\/0971-5916.191929","article-title":"Changing clinical scenario in Chandipura virus infection","volume":"143","author":"Sudeep","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2018.11","article-title":"The spread and evolution of rabies virus: Conquering new frontiers","volume":"16","author":"Fisher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"123","article-title":"Rabies in domestic pig-first report from south India","volume":"18","author":"Preethi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Indian Vet. Assoc. Kerala JIVA"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"160","article-title":"Rabies in pig\u2014A case report","volume":"44","author":"Boro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.5455\/ijmsph.2016.15112015250","article-title":"Epidemiology of animal bite cases reported to anti-rabies vaccination OPD at a tertiary-care hospital, Nagpur","volume":"5","author":"Kinge","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"1","article-title":"Wild pig rabies\u2014A case study from Pathippara, Malappuram, Kerala","volume":"6","author":"Nair","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Med. Basic Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, G., Liu, H., Zhou, Q., Liu, X., Huang, L., and Weng, C. (2022). A Tug of War: Pseudorabies Virus and Host Antiviral Innate Immunity. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14030547"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, H.H., Fu, P.F., Chen, H.Y., and Wang, Z.Y. (2022). Pseudorabies Virus: From Pathogenesis to Prevention Strategies. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14081638"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sehl, J., and Teifke, J.P. (2020). Comparative Pathology of Pseudorabies in Different Naturally and Experimentally Infected Species\u2014A Review. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9080633"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1200","article-title":"Genomic detection methods for detection of pseudorabies virus infection in Indian pigs","volume":"79","author":"Vanamayya","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"17","article-title":"An outbreak of pseudorabies in piglets","volume":"12","author":"Bhattacharyya","year":"1973","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Health"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Vanamayya, P.R. (2002). Annual Report, Indian Veterinary Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tao, J., Li, B., Cheng, J., Shi, Y., Qiao, C., Lin, Z., and Liu, H. (2022). Genomic Divergence Characterization and Quantitative Proteomics Exploration of Type 4 Porcine Astrovirus. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14071383"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-016-3185-0","article-title":"Identification and characterization of multiple porcine astrovirus genotypes in Hunan province, China","volume":"162","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sawant, P.M., Waghchaure, R.B., Shinde, P.A., Palikondawar, A.P., and Lavania, M. (2023). Detection and Molecular Characterization of Animal Adenovirus and Astrovirus from Western Maharashtra, India. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.05.01.539015"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13058","article-title":"First report and genetic characterization of porcine astroviruses of lineage 4 and 2 in diarrhoeic pigs in India","volume":"66","author":"Kattoor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2847","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-021-05195-8","article-title":"Molecular detection and characterization reveals circulation of multiple genotypes of porcine astrovirus in Haryana, India","volume":"166","author":"Kour","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"1351","article-title":"Porcine astrovirus detection and characterization in healthy and diarrheic pigs from Haryana, India","volume":"57","author":"Kaur","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-023-05865-9","article-title":"Coinfection of porcine astrovirus and other porcine viruses in diarrheic pigs in Haryana, India","volume":"168","author":"Vaishali","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roach, S.N., and Langlois, R.A. (2021). Intra- and Cross-Species Transmission of Astroviruses. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061127"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-10-161","article-title":"Molecular investigation of Torque teno sus virus in geographically distinct porcine breeding herds of Sichuan, China","volume":"10","author":"Mei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.05.020","article-title":"Dynamics of Torque teno sus virus 1 (TTSuV1) and 2 (TTSuV2) DNA loads in serum of healthy and postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) affected pigs","volume":"152","author":"Nieto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2019.1467-1471","article-title":"Detection of torque teno sus virus infection in Indian pigs","volume":"12","author":"Subramanyam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2019.197843","article-title":"Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) antagonizes interferon-\u03b2 production via blocking IPS-1 and RIG-I","volume":"278","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-021-00364-0","article-title":"Porcine Coronaviruses: Overview of the State of the Art","volume":"36","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2019.1580827","article-title":"Nipah virus: Epidemiology, pathology, immunobiology and advances in diagnosis, vaccine designing and control strategies\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"39","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Q."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1007\/s11684-024-1078-2","article-title":"Nipah virus: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.17511\/ijmrr.2020.i03.06","article-title":"A clinico-epidemiological study of the first outbreak of Nipah virus in India\u2013report from ground zero","volume":"8","author":"Saha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Res. Review"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.4103\/ijcm.IJCM_198_19","article-title":"Nipah Virus Infection in Kozhikode, Kerala, South India, in 2018: Epidemiology of an Outbreak of an Emerging Disease","volume":"44","author":"Thomas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian J. Community Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy612","article-title":"Outbreak Investigation of Nipah Virus Disease in Kerala, India, 2018","volume":"219","author":"Arunkumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-013-0171-y","article-title":"Nipah virus infection: Current scenario","volume":"24","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Indian J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"59","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis: A veterinary perspective","volume":"2","author":"Himani","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Foodborne Zoon. Dis."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s40011-011-0004-y","article-title":"Hepatitis E in India","volume":"82","author":"Arankalle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India Sect. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.4103\/IJMR.2010_132_05_504","article-title":"Molecular analysis of swine Hepatitis E virus from north India","volume":"132","author":"Begum","year":"2010","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-009-0058-1","article-title":"Epidemiological update on swine influenza (H1N1) in pigs","volume":"49","author":"Dubey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2017.12.005","article-title":"Evaluation of clinical applicability of reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for detection and subtyping of Influenza A viruses","volume":"253","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-9062.263717","article-title":"Latex agglutination test for rapid on-site serodiagnosis of Japanese encephalitis in pigs using recombinant NS1 antigen","volume":"56","author":"Grace","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vector Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2020.104882","article-title":"Serological evidence of Japanese encephalitis virus infection in pigs in a low human incidence state, Goa, India","volume":"175","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.13123","article-title":"Spatio-temporal epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis virus infection in pig populations of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India, 2013\u20132022","volume":"71","author":"Dhanze","year":"2024","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3966","DOI":"10.1039\/D2NA00463A","article-title":"Immuno-chromatic probe based lateral flow assay for point-of-care detection of Japanese encephalitis virus NS1 protein biomarker in clinical samples using a smartphone-based approach","volume":"4","author":"Roberts","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1080\/10495398.2019.1602539","article-title":"Development and evaluation of lateral flow assay for sero-diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis in swine","volume":"31","author":"Dhanze","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2012.10.004","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis: A review of the Indian perspective","volume":"16","author":"Singh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.2016.17.1.1","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus as an emerging zoonotic pathogen","volume":"17","author":"Park","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2022.100384","article-title":"The pig as an amplifying host for new and emerging zoonotic viruses","volume":"14","author":"McLean","year":"2022","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulvey, P., Duong, V., Boyer, S., Burgess, G., Williams, D.T., Dussart, P., and Horwood, P.F. (2021). The Ecology and Evolution of Japanese Encephalitis Virus. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10121534"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2020.2896","article-title":"Hepatitis E Virus in the Food of Animal Origin: A Review","volume":"18","author":"Ferri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petro-Turnquist, E., Pekarek, M.J., and Weaver, E.A. (2024). Swine influenza A virus: Challenges and novel vaccine strategies. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1336013"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2021.09.059","article-title":"Impact analysis of rotavirus vaccination in various geographic regions in Western Europe","volume":"39","author":"Verberk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghonaim, A.H., Rouby, S.R., Nageeb, W.M., Elgendy, A.A., Xu, R., Jiang, C., Ghonaim, N.H., He, Q., and Li, W. Insights into recent advancements in human and animal rotavirus vaccines: Exploring new Frontiers. Virol. Sin., 2024. in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virs.2024.12.001"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.7774\/cevr.2013.2.1.19","article-title":"The present and future of rabies vaccine in animals","volume":"2","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Vaccine Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2023.100615","article-title":"Dynamic analysis of rabies transmission and elimination in mainland China","volume":"17","author":"Lv","year":"2023","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1409.070845","article-title":"Regulatory systems for prevention and control of rabies, Japan","volume":"14","author":"Omoe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brisse, M.E., and Ly, H. (2024). Chandipura Virus Causing Large Viral Encephalitis Outbreaks in India. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13121110"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.69.3.462-500.2005","article-title":"Molecular biology of pseudorabies virus: Impact on neurovirology and veterinary medicine","volume":"69","author":"Pomeranz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, Q., Wang, C., Liu, H., Wu, Q., Liang, S., Cen, M., Dong, Q., Wei, Y., Chen, Y., and Ouyang, K. (2019). Pathogenic Characteristics of a Porcine Astrovirus Strain Isolated in China. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11121156"},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Kekarainen, T. (2024, December 25). What We Know About Torque Teno Sus Viruses?. Available online: https:\/\/www.pig333.com\/."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/3\/381\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:48:16Z","timestamp":1760028496000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/3\/381"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,6]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["v17030381"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17030381","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,6]]}}}