{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T12:11:16Z","timestamp":1776773476253,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]],"date-time":"2025-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743120000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Sub-Saharan African Network for TB\/HIV research Excellence (SANTHE)","award":["SANTHE COL025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SANTHE COL025"]}]},{"name":"Sub-Saharan African Network for TB\/HIV research Excellence (SANTHE)","award":["MAP\/MAS\/054 2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MAP\/MAS\/054 2019"]}]},{"name":"Africa Center of Excellence in Materials, Product Development and Nanotechnology (MAPRONANO ACE)","award":["SANTHE COL025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SANTHE COL025"]}]},{"name":"Africa Center of Excellence in Materials, Product Development and Nanotechnology (MAPRONANO ACE)","award":["MAP\/MAS\/054 2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MAP\/MAS\/054 2019"]}]},{"name":"Medical Research Council\/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI and LSHTM)","award":["SANTHE COL025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SANTHE COL025"]}]},{"name":"Medical Research Council\/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI and LSHTM)","award":["MAP\/MAS\/054 2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MAP\/MAS\/054 2019"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Initial interactions between HIV-1 and the immune system at mucosal exposure sites play a critical role in determining whether the virus is eliminated or progresses to establish systemic infection. The virus that successfully crosses the mucosal barrier to establish infection in the new host is referred to as the transmitted\/founder (TF) virus. Following mucosal HIV-1 transmission, type 1 interferons (IFN-I) are rapidly induced at sites of initial virus replication. The resistance of TF variants to these antiviral effects of the IFN-I has been studied among HIV-1 subtypes B and C. However, their role in restricting HIV-1 replication among subtypes D and AD recombinant remains unexplored. This study assessed the sensitivity of HIV-1 subtype D and AD recombinant TF viruses to IFN-I by infecting peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro with infectious molecular clones of these viruses. Cells were exposed to varying concentrations of interferon-\u03b1 and interferon-\u03b2, and viral replicative capacity was measured using HIV-1 p24 antigen ELISA from culture supernatants. Sensitivity to IFN-I was quantified based on viral replication levels. The results showed that interferon-\u03b1 was more effective in inhibiting viral replication than interferon-\u03b2, regardless of the varying amounts of IFN-I used. However, recombinant AD viruses were found to be more resistant to the antiviral effects of IFN-I compared to subtype D viruses. These findings highlight the differential sensitivity of HIV-1 subtypes AD recombinant and D TF viruses to IFN-I and underscore the potential of IFN-I as a therapeutic strategy to target TF viruses and reduce HIV-1 transmission, particularly in populations where subtype D is prevalent.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17040486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]],"date-time":"2025-03-28T06:06:35Z","timestamp":1743141995000},"page":"486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Subtype AD Recombinant HIV-1 Transmitted\/Founder Viruses Are Less Sensitive to Type I Interferons than Subtype D"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7936-1754","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Denis","family":"Omara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"},{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fortunate","family":"Natwijuka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"},{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0726-1276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne","family":"Kapaata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5075-0756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frank","family":"Kato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"},{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laban","family":"Kato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5068-1746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Ndekezi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"},{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Angella","family":"Nakyanzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI), Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mercy L.","family":"Ayebale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ling","family":"Yue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4273-8631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric","family":"Hunter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2301-5980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Obondo J.","family":"Sande","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1166-5879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christina","family":"Ochsenbauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pontiano","family":"Kaleebu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"},{"name":"Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI), Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sheila N.","family":"Balinda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (MRC\/UVRI & LSHTM), Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe P.O. Box 49, Uganda"},{"name":"Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI), Entebbe P.O. 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