{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:12:28Z","timestamp":1760058748079,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]],"date-time":"2025-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745280000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100018693","name":"Horizon Europe program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100018693","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"J\u00fcrgen-Manchot-Stiftung and the Marburg Research Academy (MARA)","award":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"]}]},{"name":"Von Behring-R\u00f6ntgen-Stiftung","award":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101191666","197785619\/SFB1021"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lassa mammarenavirus (LASV), a member of the family Arenaviridae, is a highly pathogenic virus capable of causing severe systemic infections in humans. The primary host reservoir is the Natal multimammate mouse (Mastomys natalensis), with human infections typically occurring through mucosal exposure to virus-containing aerosols from rodent excretions. To better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying LASV replication in the respiratory tract, we utilized differentiated primary human airway epithelial cells (HAECs) grown under air\u2013liquid interface conditions, closely mimicking the bronchial epithelium in vivo. Our findings demonstrate that HAECs are permissive to LASV infection and support productive virus replication. While LASV entry into polarized HAECs occurred through both apical and basolateral surfaces, progeny virus particles were predominantly released from the apical surface, consistent with an intrinsic apical localization of the envelope glycoprotein GP. This suggests that apical virus shedding from infected bronchial epithelia may facilitate LASV transmission via airway secretions. Notably, limited basolateral release at later stages of infection was associated with LASV-induced rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton, resulting in compromised epithelial barrier integrity. Finally, we demonstrate that LASV-infected HAECs exhibited a pronounced type III interferon response. A detailed understanding of LASV replication and host epithelial responses in the respiratory tract could facilitate the development of targeted future therapeutics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17050592","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]],"date-time":"2025-04-22T20:24:52Z","timestamp":1745353492000},"page":"592","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Lassa Virus Infection of Primary Human Airway Epithelial Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Helena","family":"M\u00fcller-Kr\u00e4uter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarah Katharina","family":"Fehling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lucie","family":"Sauerhering","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Birthe","family":"Ehlert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Janine","family":"Koepke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Molecular Pneumology, Cardio-Pulmonary Institute, Justus-Liebig University of Giessen, Aulweg 130, 35392 Gie\u00dfen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juliane","family":"Schilling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1618-2083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikhail","family":"Matrosovich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Maisner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7857-937X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Strecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Str. 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basinski, A.J., Fichet-Calvet, E., Sjodin, A.R., Varrelman, T.J., Remien, C.H., Layman, N.C., Bird, B.H., Wolking, D.J., Monagin, C., and Ghersi, B.M. (2021). Bridging the gap: Using reservoir ecology and human serosurveys to estimate Lassa virus spillover in West Africa. PLoS Comput. Biol., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1008811"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"69","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of Lassa fever","volume":"134","author":"McCormick","year":"1987","journal-title":"Curr. Top Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.3.437","article-title":"A prospective study of the epidemiology and ecology of Lassa fever","volume":"155","author":"McCormick","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198601023140104","article-title":"Lassa fever. Effective therapy with ribavirin","volume":"314","author":"McCormick","year":"1986","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2019.07.015","article-title":"Ribavirin for the treatment of Lassa fever: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"87","author":"Eberhardt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(86)90438-1","article-title":"Nucleotide sequence of the glycoprotein gene and intergenic region of the Lassa virus S genome RNA","volume":"154","author":"Auperin","year":"1986","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1997.8722","article-title":"Completion of the Lassa fever virus sequence and identification of a RING finger open reading frame at the L RNA 5\u2032 End","volume":"235","author":"Djavani","year":"1997","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-78-3-547","article-title":"The Lassa fever virus L gene: Nucleotide sequence, comparison, and precipitation of a predicted 250 kDa protein with monospecific antiserum","volume":"78","author":"Lukashevich","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400002","article-title":"Identification of Lassa virus glycoprotein signal peptide as a trans-acting maturation factor","volume":"4","author":"Eichler","year":"2003","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(03)00160-1","article-title":"Signal peptide of Lassa virus glycoprotein GP-C exhibits an unusual length","volume":"538","author":"Eichler","year":"2003","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12701","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.221447598","article-title":"The Lassa virus glycoprotein precursor GP-C is proteolytically processed by subtilase SKI-1\/S1P","volume":"98","author":"Lenz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3390\/v4010083","article-title":"The curious case of arenavirus entry, and its inhibition","volume":"4","author":"Nunberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.1126\/science.282.5396.2079","article-title":"Identification of alpha-dystroglycan as a receptor for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and Lassa fever virus","volume":"282","author":"Cao","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1038\/355696a0","article-title":"Primary structure of dystrophin-associated glycoproteins linking dystrophin to the extracellular matrix","volume":"355","author":"Ervasti","year":"1992","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.02814","article-title":"Dystroglycan: From biosynthesis to pathogenesis of human disease","volume":"119","author":"Barresi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26609","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.274.37.26609","article-title":"Biochemical characterization of the epithelial dystroglycan complex","volume":"274","author":"Durbeej","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1165\/ajrcmb.24.2.3993","article-title":"Airway epithelial cell wound repair mediated by alpha-dystroglycan","volume":"24","author":"White","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06451-11","article-title":"Identification of cell surface molecules involved in dystroglycan-independent Lassa virus cell entry","volume":"86","author":"Shimojima","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-230X(08)00002-X","article-title":"TAM receptor tyrosine kinases: Biologic functions, signaling, and potential therapeutic targeting in human cancer","volume":"100","author":"Linger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)80693-5","article-title":"Identification of DC-SIGN, a novel dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3 receptor that supports primary immune responses","volume":"100","author":"Geijtenbeek","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.71.3.445","article-title":"Constitutive and induced expression of DC-SIGN on dendritic cell and macrophage subpopulations in situ and in vitro","volume":"71","author":"Soilleux","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18748","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M311227200","article-title":"Characterization of a novel C-type lectin-like gene, LSECtin: Demonstration of carbohydrate binding and expression in sinusoidal endothelial cells of liver and lymph node","volume":"279","author":"Liu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1252480","article-title":"Virus entry. Lassa virus entry requires a trigger-induced receptor switch","volume":"344","author":"Jae","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1126\/science.185.4147.263","article-title":"Lassa virus isolation from Mastomys natalensis rodents during an epidemic in Sierra Leone","volume":"185","author":"Monath","year":"1974","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.1890140402","article-title":"Effect of environmental factors on aerosol-induced Lassa virus infection","volume":"14","author":"Stephenson","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1983.32.829","article-title":"Case-control study of Mastomys natalensis and humans in Lassa virus-infected households in Sierra Leone","volume":"32","author":"Keenlyside","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"75","article-title":"Lassa fever","volume":"262","author":"McCormick","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"349","article-title":"Pathologic and virologic study of fatal Lassa fever in man","volume":"107","author":"Walker","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1982.31.1038","article-title":"Pathology of Lassa virus infection in the rhesus monkey","volume":"31","author":"Callis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flatz, L., Rieger, T., Merkler, D., Bergthaler, A., Regen, T., Schedensack, M., Bestmann, L., Verschoor, A., Kreutzfeldt, M., and Bruck, W. (2010). T cell-dependence of Lassa fever pathogenesis. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000836"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.37.2.771-778.1982","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Lassa virus infection in guinea pigs","volume":"37","author":"Jahrling","year":"1982","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2010.04.004","article-title":"Human primary bronchial lung cell constructs: The new respiratory models","volume":"278","author":"Berube","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-008-0424-9","article-title":"Tight junctions and the modulation of barrier function in disease","volume":"130","author":"Forster","year":"2008","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2009.05.009","article-title":"Intercellular junctional proteins as receptors and barriers to virus infection and spread","volume":"5","author":"Bergelson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02240-09","article-title":"Viral protein determinants of Lassa virus entry and release from polarized epithelial cells","volume":"84","author":"Schlie","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/0272-0590(86)90170-3","article-title":"Developing differentiated epithelial cell cultures: Airway epithelial cells","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"1986","journal-title":"Fundam. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12297","article-title":"Culturing of respiratory viruses in well-differentiated pseudostratified human airway epithelium as a tool to detect unknown viruses","volume":"9","author":"Farsani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfy053","article-title":"Air-Liquid Interface: Relevant In Vitro Models for Investigating Air Pollutant-Induced Pulmonary Toxicity","volume":"164","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12095","article-title":"The microtubule motor protein KIF13A is involved in intracellular trafficking of the Lassa virus matrix protein Z","volume":"15","author":"Fehling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maisa, A., Stroher, U., Klenk, H.D., Garten, W., and Strecker, T. (2009). Inhibition of Lassa virus glycoprotein cleavage and multicycle replication by site 1 protease-adapted alpha(1)-antitrypsin variants. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000446"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-3-63","article-title":"New low-viscosity overlay medium for viral plaque assays","volume":"3","author":"Matrosovich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2012.09.078","article-title":"Characterization of the neuraminidase of the H1N1\/09 pandemic influenza virus","volume":"30","author":"Gerlach","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1165\/ajrcmb.14.1.8534481","article-title":"Mucociliary differentiation of serially passaged normal human tracheobronchial epithelial cells","volume":"14","author":"Gray","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24997","DOI":"10.4161\/tisb.24997","article-title":"Barrier function of airway tract epithelium","volume":"1","author":"Ganesan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1985.tb50418.x","article-title":"Patterns of expression and organization of cytokeratin intermediate filaments","volume":"455","author":"Quinlan","year":"1985","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02889883","article-title":"Cytokeratins in normal lung and lung carcinomas. I. Adenocarcinomas, squamous cell carcinomas and cultured cell lines","volume":"45","author":"Blobel","year":"1984","journal-title":"Virchows Arch. B Cell Pathol. Incl. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(82)90400-7","article-title":"The catalog of human cytokeratins: Patterns of expression in normal epithelia, tumors and cultured cells","volume":"31","author":"Moll","year":"1982","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-008-0435-6","article-title":"The human keratins: Biology and pathology","volume":"129","author":"Moll","year":"2008","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.93.3.419","article-title":"Patterns of expression of keratin 17 in human epithelia: Dependency on cell position","volume":"93","author":"Troyanovsky","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470035399.ch13","article-title":"Innate immunity and mucus structure and function","volume":"279","author":"Sheehan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Novartis Found. Symp."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L92","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.90388.2008","article-title":"Tracheobronchial air-liquid interface cell culture: A model for innate mucosal defense of the upper airways?","volume":"296","author":"Kesimer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-020-00219-x","article-title":"Adjuvant formulated virus-like particles expressing native-like forms of the Lassa virus envelope surface glycoprotein are immunogenic and induce antibodies with broadly neutralizing activity","volume":"5","author":"Muller","year":"2020","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3987","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.9.3987","article-title":"Human immunodeficiency virus envelope protein determines the site of virus release in polarized epithelial cells","volume":"88","author":"Owens","year":"1991","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(80)90233-0","article-title":"Polarized distribution of viral envelope proteins in the plasma membrane of infected epithelial cells","volume":"20","author":"Pendergast","year":"1980","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warner, N.L., Jokinen, J.D., Beier, J.I., Sokoloski, K.J., and Lukashevich, I.S. (2018). Mammarenaviral Infection Is Dependent on Directional Exposure to and Release from Polarized Intestinal Epithelia. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10020075"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2462","DOI":"10.3390\/v3122462","article-title":"The actin cytoskeleton as a barrier to virus infection of polarized epithelial cells","volume":"3","author":"Coyne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2447","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000934","article-title":"Variability of interferon-lambda induction and antiviral activity in Nipah virus infected differentiated human bronchial epithelial cells of two human donors","volume":"98","author":"Sauerhering","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caballero, I.S., Yen, J.Y., Hensley, L.E., Honko, A.N., Goff, A.J., and Connor, J.H. (2014). Lassa and Marburg viruses elicit distinct host transcriptional responses early after infection. BMC Genom., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-15-960"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-032713-120231","article-title":"Interferon-stimulated genes: A complex web of host defenses","volume":"32","author":"Schneider","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6034","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00100-08","article-title":"Basolateral entry and release of New and Old World arenaviruses from human airway epithelia","volume":"82","author":"Dylla","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F459","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.90340.2008","article-title":"Role of N-glycosylation in trafficking of apical membrane proteins in epithelia","volume":"296","author":"Vagin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-3-41","article-title":"The role of single N-glycans in proteolytic processing and cell surface transport of the Lassa virus glycoprotein GP-C","volume":"3","author":"Eichler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.80473-0","article-title":"Polarized entry and release of Junin virus, a New World arenavirus","volume":"86","author":"Cordo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/155.3.456","article-title":"Clinical virology of Lassa fever in hospitalized patients","volume":"155","author":"Johnson","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(21)00178-6","article-title":"Virus persistence after recovery from acute Lassa fever in Nigeria: A 2-year interim analysis of a prospective longitudinal cohort study","volume":"3","author":"Thielebein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2022.2071637","article-title":"Viral RNA and infectious virus in mucosal specimens from guinea pigs modelling early phases of lethal and non-lethal Lassa fever","volume":"11","author":"Welch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-020-00343-x","article-title":"Rearrangement of Actin Cytoskeleton by Zika Virus Infection Facilitates Blood-Testis Barrier Hyperpermeability","volume":"36","author":"Nie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J.L., Zhang, J.L., Chen, W., Xu, X.F., Gao, N., Fan, D.Y., and An, J. (2010). Roles of small GTPase Rac1 in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton during dengue virus infection. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000809"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suttitheptumrong, A., Mahutchariyakul, T., Rawarak, N., Reamtong, O., Boonnak, K., and Pattanakitsakul, S.N. (2021). Altered Moesin and Actin Cytoskeleton Protein Rearrangements Affect Transendothelial Permeability in Human Endothelial Cells upon Dengue Virus Infection and TNF-alpha Treatment. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13102042"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.4149\/av_2018_102","article-title":"Disruption of the blood brain barrier is vital property of neurotropic viral infection of the central nervous system","volume":"62","author":"Bahadoran","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5145","DOI":"10.3390\/v7092865","article-title":"Tight Junctions Go Viral!","volume":"7","author":"Arias","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-016-1908-4","article-title":"Claudins in viral infection: From entry to spread","volume":"469","author":"Colpitts","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pflugers Arch."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.20764","article-title":"Rhinovirus infection-induced alteration of tight junction and adherens junction components in human nasal epithelial cells","volume":"120","author":"Yeo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200801-136OC","article-title":"Rhinovirus disrupts the barrier function of polarized airway epithelial cells","volume":"178","author":"Sajjan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L436","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00097.2007","article-title":"MAPK and heat shock protein 27 activation are associated with respiratory syncytial virus induction of human bronchial epithelial monolayer disruption","volume":"293","author":"Singh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rezaee, F., Harford, T.J., Linfield, D.T., Altawallbeh, G., Midura, R.J., Ivanov, A.I., and Piedimonte, G. (2017). cAMP-dependent activation of protein kinase A attenuates respiratory syncytial virus-induced human airway epithelial barrier disruption. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181876"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4283","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.02560","article-title":"Viral oncoprotein-induced mislocalization of select PDZ proteins disrupts tight junctions and causes polarity defects in epithelial cells","volume":"118","author":"Latorre","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(02)00912-1","article-title":"Adenovirus fiber disrupts CAR-mediated intercellular adhesion allowing virus escape","volume":"110","author":"Walters","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, P., Li, G., Shen, M., Yu, Z., Ge, W., Lao, Z., Fan, Y., Chen, K., Ding, Z., and Wang, W. (2021). DENV NS1 and MMP-9 cooperate to induce vascular leakage by altering endothelial cell adhesion and tight junction. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008603"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01443-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01443-19","article-title":"Comprehensive Interactome Analysis Reveals that STT3B Is Required for N-Glycosylation of Lassa Virus Glycoprotein","volume":"93","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-3003.1999.14a15.x","article-title":"Effects of TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma and IL-beta on normal human bronchial epithelial cells","volume":"14","author":"Kampf","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3218","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.e02-03-0134","article-title":"Regulation of airway tight junctions by proinflammatory cytokines","volume":"13","author":"Coyne","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc3545","article-title":"Type III interferons disrupt the lung epithelial barrier upon viral recognition","volume":"369","author":"Broggi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanifer, M.L., Guo, C., Doldan, P., and Boulant, S. (2020). Importance of Type I and III Interferons at Respiratory and Intestinal Barrier Surfaces. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.608645"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12696","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00882-07","article-title":"Differential inhibition of type I interferon induction by arenavirus nucleoproteins","volume":"81","author":"Giannakas","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2944","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03349-14","article-title":"The Z proteins of pathogenic but not nonpathogenic arenaviruses inhibit RIG-I-like receptor-dependent interferon production","volume":"89","author":"Xing","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9822","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0610352104","article-title":"Inhibition of type I and type III interferons by a secreted glycoprotein from Yaba-like disease virus","volume":"104","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stott, R.J., Strecker, T., and Foster, T.L. (2020). Distinct Molecular Mechanisms of Host Immune Response Modulation by Arenavirus NP and Z Proteins. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12070784"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2015.07.001","article-title":"Interferon-lambda: Immune Functions at Barrier Surfaces and Beyond","volume":"43","author":"Lazear","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1038\/35099560","article-title":"Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3","volume":"413","author":"Alexopoulou","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20081210","article-title":"Differential recognition of double-stranded RNA by RIG-I-like receptors in antiviral immunity","volume":"205","author":"Saito","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5571","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M410592200","article-title":"Involvement of toll-like receptor 3 in the immune response of lung epithelial cells to double-stranded RNA and influenza A virus","volume":"280","author":"Guillot","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3261","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01956-12","article-title":"Toll-like receptor expression and induction of type I and type III interferons in primary airway epithelial cells","volume":"87","author":"Ioannidis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-019-0594-3","article-title":"Asymmetric distribution of TLR3 leads to a polarized immune response in human intestinal epithelial cells","volume":"5","author":"Stanifer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5670","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00272-10","article-title":"Lambda interferon renders epithelial cells of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts resistant to viral infections","volume":"84","author":"Mordstein","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/5\/592\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:19:36Z","timestamp":1760030376000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/5\/592"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v17050592"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17050592","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-4915"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]]}}}