{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T12:35:50Z","timestamp":1790253350311,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]],"date-time":"2025-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745971200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We have reviewed the primary literature on the virucidal efficacy of microbicidal active ingredients, formulated microbicides, and physical inactivation approaches (heat, irradiation) for hemorrhagic fever viruses (HFVs) (arenaviruses, filoviruses, flaviviruses, hantaviruses, nairoviruses, and phenuiviruses), and for two non-typical HFV paramyxoviruses. As each of these HFVs are large, lipid-enveloped RNA viruses, their susceptibilities to virucidal agents are informed by the so-called hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides. The unique susceptibility of lipid-enveloped viruses to most classes of microbicides is based on the common mechanisms of action of envelope-disrupting microbicides. Despite this, due to the relatively great lethality of these viruses, it is prudent (where possible) to confirm the expected efficacies of inactivation approaches in testing involving the HFVs themselves (as opposed to less lethal surrogate viruses) using field-relevant methods. Empirical data for virucidal activities of microbicidal active ingredients, formulated microbicides, and physical inactivation approaches, such as heat, ultraviolet light, and gamma irradiation, that were collected specifically for HFVs have been reviewed and summarized in this paper. These empirical data for surface and hand hygiene approaches, liquid inactivation approaches, and approaches for rendering diagnostic samples safe to handle inform non-pharmaceutical interventions intended to mitigate transmission risk associated with these HFVs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17050663","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]],"date-time":"2025-05-02T11:35:13Z","timestamp":1746185713000},"page":"663","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Virucidal Approaches for Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0118-0432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raymond W.","family":"Nims","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Syner-G BioPharma, Boulder, CO 80503, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7024-6987","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. Khalid","family":"Ijaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Research and Development for Lysol and Dettol, Reckitt Benckiser LLC, Montvale, NJ 07645, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nims, R.W., and Ijaz, M.K. (2022). Predicted and measured virucidal efficacies of microbicides for emerging and reemerging viruses associated with WHO priority diseases. Disinfection of Viruses, Intech Open.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.95703"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"U.S. CDC (2025, April 10). About Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers. Fact Sheet, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/viral-hemorrhagic-fevers\/about\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2005.06.007","article-title":"Hemorrhagic fever viruses","volume":"21","author":"Pigott","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit. Care Clin."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fl\u00f3rez-\u00c1lvarez, L., de Souza, E.E., Botosso, V.F., de Oliveira, D.B.L., Ho, P.L., Taborda, C.P., Palmisano, G., Capurro, M.L., Pinho, J.R.R., and Ferreira, H.L. (2022). Hemorrhagic fever viruses: Pathogenesis, therapeutics, and emerging and re-emerging potential. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1040093"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, April 10). Prioritizing Diseases for Research and Development in Emergency Contexts. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/activities\/prioritizing-diseases-for-research-and-development-in-emergency-contexts."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Block, S. (1968). Chemical disinfection of medical and surgical materials. Disinfection, Sterilization, & Preservation, Lea & Febiger. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025, April 10). Guidance to Registrants: Process for Making Claims Against Emerging Viral Pathogens not on EPA-Registered Disinfectant Labels, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2016-09\/documents\/emerging_viral_pathogen_program_guidance_final_8_19_16_001_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025, April 10). Emerging Viral Pathogen Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/pesticide-registration\/emerging-viral-pathogen-guidance-antimicrobial-pesticides."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000708","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.3.2000708","article-title":"The European tiered approach for virucidal efficacy testing\u2013rationale for rapidly selecting disinfectants against emerging and re-emerging viral diseases","volume":"26","author":"Eggers","year":"2021","journal-title":"EuroSurveillance"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2016.05.005","article-title":"Intra-family differences in efficacy of inactivation of small, non-enveloped viruses","volume":"44","author":"Nims","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Nims, R.W., and Ijaz, M.K. (2022). Variation in resistance among enveloped and non-enveloped viruses to chemical treatments. Disinfection of Viruses, Intech Open. Available online: https:\/\/www.intechopen.com\/chapters\/80772."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elveborg, S., Monteil, V.M., and Mirazimi, A. (2022). Methods of inactivation of highly pathogenic viruses for molecular, serology or vaccine development purposes. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11020271"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2022.263","article-title":"Sources, enumerations and inactivation mechanisms of four emerging viruses in aqueous phase","volume":"20","author":"Hossain","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerba, C.P., Boone, S., Nims, R.W., Maillard, J.-Y., Sattar, S.A., Rubino, J.R., McKinney, J., and Ijaz, M.K. (2024). Mechanisms of action of microbicides commonly used in infection prevention and control. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., 88.","DOI":"10.1128\/mmbr.00205-22"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Nims, R.W., and Ijaz, M.K. (2022). Physical inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses: A review. Disinfection of Viruses, Intech Open. Available online: https:\/\/www.intechopen.com\/chapters\/81019."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2020). Standard Practice to Assess Virucidal Activity of Chemicals Intended for Disinfection of Inanimate, Nonporous Environmental Surfaces (Standard No. ASTM E1053-20). Available online: https:\/\/store.astm.org\/standards\/e1053."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2020). Standard Practice to Assess the Activity of Microbicides Against Viruses in Suspension (Standard No. ASTM E1052-20). Available online: https:\/\/store.astm.org\/e1052-20.html."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2019). Chemical Disinfectants and Antiseptics. Quantitative Suspension Test for the Evaluation of Virucidal Activity in the Medical Area. Test Method and Requirements (Phase 2\/Step 1) (Standard No. BS EN 14476:2013+A2:2019). Available online: https:\/\/www.en-standard.eu\/bs-en-14476-2013-a2-2019-chemical-disinfectants-and-antiseptics-quantitative-suspension-test-for-the-evaluation-of-virucidal-activity-in-the-medical-area-test-method-and-requirements-phase-2-step-1\/."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025, April 10). OCSPP 810.2500-Air Sanitizers_2012-03-12 [EPA 730-C-11-003], Available online: https:\/\/www.regulations.gov\/document\/EPA-HQ-OPPT-2009-0150-0025."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2021). Standard Practice to Assess Microbial Decontamination of Indoor Air Using an Aerobiology Chamber (Standard No. E3273-21)."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01426-24","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.01426-24","article-title":"Rapid virucidal activity of an air sanitizer against airborne bacteriophage Phi6 and MS2 surrogates for non-enveloped and enveloped vertebrate viruses, including SARS-CoV-2","volume":"91","author":"Ijaz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/90.3.817","article-title":"Application of a quantitative carrier test to evaluate microbicides against mycobacteria","volume":"90","author":"Springthorpe","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"U.S. CDC (2025, April 10). About Lassa Fever, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/lassa-fever\/about\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olschewski, S., Thielbein, A., Hoffmann, C., Blake, O., M\u00fcller, J., Bockholt, S., Pallasch, E., Hinzmann, J., Wurr, S., and Neddersen, N. (2021). Validation of inactivation methods for arenaviruses. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13060968"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-010-0847-1","article-title":"Sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation of Lassa, vaccinia, and Ebola viruses dried on surfaces","volume":"156","author":"Sagripanti","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4374","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.59.12.4374-4376.1993","article-title":"Virus inactivation by copper or iron ions alone and in the presence of peroxide","volume":"59","author":"Sagripanti","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2911.230678","article-title":"Environmental persistence and disinfection of Lassa virus","volume":"29","author":"Shaffer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutts, T.A., Nims, R.W., Rubino, J.R., McKinney, J., Kuhn, J., and Ijaz, M.K. (2023). Efficacy of microbicidal actives and formulations for inactivation of Lassa virus in suspension. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-38954-5"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"704","article-title":"Inactivation of Lassa, Marburg, and Ebola viruses by gamma irradiation","volume":"16","author":"Elliott","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.20.3.486-489.1984","article-title":"Physicochemical inactivation of Lassa, Ebola, and Marburg viruses and effect on clinical laboratory analyses","volume":"20","author":"Mitchell","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"52","article-title":"Evaluation of Trizol LS inactivation of viruses","volume":"22","author":"Kochel","year":"2017","journal-title":"ABSA Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutts, T., Leung, A., Banadyga, L., and Krishnan, J. (2024). Inactivation validation of Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa viruses in AVL and ethanol-treated viral cultures. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202407.1420.v1"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(82)92101-8","article-title":"Physical and chemical methods of inactivating Lassa virus","volume":"1","author":"Lloyd","year":"1982","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1177\/1535676020915065","article-title":"Strategies for validation of inactivation of viruses with Trizol\u00ae LS and formalin solutions","volume":"25","author":"Retterer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Biosaf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.18-0937","article-title":"Gamma irradiation as an effective method for inactivation of emerging viruses","volume":"100","author":"Feldmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olejnik, J., Hume, A.J., Ross, S.J., Scoon, W.A., Seitz, S., White, M.R., Slutzky, B., Yun, N.E., and M\u00fchlberger, E. (2023). Art of the kill: Designing and testing viral inactivation procedures for highly pathogenic negative sense RNA viruses. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12070952"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001252","article-title":"ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Filoviridae","volume":"100","author":"Kuhn","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.3390\/v7041975","article-title":"Evaluating environmental persistence and disinfection of the Ebola virus Makona variant","volume":"7","author":"Cook","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cook, B.W.M., Cutts, T.A., Nikiforuk, A.M., Leung, A., Kobasa, D., and Theriault, S.S. (2016). The disinfection characteristics of Ebola virus outbreak variants. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep38293"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2401.170504","article-title":"Two-center evaluation of disinfectant efficacy against Ebola virus in clinical and laboratory matrices","volume":"24","author":"Smither","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutts, T.A., Robertson, C., Theriault, S.S., Nims, R.W., Kasloff, S.B., Rubino, J.R., and Ijaz, M.K. (2020). Efficacy of microbicides for inactivation of Ebola-Makona virus on a non-porous surface: A targeted hygiene intervention for reducing virus spread. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71736-x"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutts, T.A., Kasloff, S.B., Krishnan, J., Nims, R.W., Theriault, S.S., Rubino, J.R., and Ijaz, M.K. (2021). Comparison of the efficacy of disinfectant pre-impregnated wipes for decontaminating stainless steel carriers experimentally inoculated with Ebola virus and vesicular stomatitis virus. Front. Publ. Health, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.657443"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smither, S., Phelps, A., Eastaugh, L., Ngugi, S., O\u2019Brien, L., Dutch, A., and Lever, M.S. (2016). Effectiveness of four disinfectants against Ebola virus on different materials. Viruses, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/v8070185"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bibby, K., Fischer, R.J., Casson, L.W., de Carvalho, N.A., Haas, C.N., and Munster, V.J. (2017). Disinfection of Ebola virus in sterilized municipal wastewater. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005299"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eggers, M., Eickmann, M., Kowalski, K., Zorn, J., and Reimer, K. (2015). Povidone-iodine hand wash and hand rub products demonstrated excellent in vitro virucidal efficacy against Ebola virus and modified vaccinia virus Ankara, the new European test virus for enveloped viruses. BMC Infect. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-015-1111-9"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/143.2.291","article-title":"Inactivation of Ebola virus with 60Co irradiation","volume":"143","author":"Lupton","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutts, T.A., Ijaz, M.K., Nims, R.W., Rubino, J.R., and Theriault, S.S. (2019). Effectiveness of Dettol Antiseptic Liquid for inactivation of Ebola virus in suspension. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42386-5"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infpip.2021.100122","article-title":"Hand hygiene: Virucidal efficacy of a liquid hand wash product against Ebola virus","volume":"3","author":"Cutts","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Prev. Pract."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix046","article-title":"Virucidal activity of World Health Organization-recommended formulations against enveloped viruses, including Zika, Ebola, and emerging coronaviruses","volume":"215","author":"Siddharta","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2016.11.009","article-title":"Evaluation of the inactivation effect of Triton X-100 on Ebola virus infectivity","volume":"86","author":"Colavita","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix401","article-title":"Ebola virus inactivation by detergents is annulled in serum","volume":"216","author":"Tintu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boytz, R., Seitz, S., Guadiano, E., Patten, J.J., Keiser, P.T., Connor, J.H., Sharpe, A.H., and Davey, R.A. (2023). Inactivation of Ebola virus and SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture supernatants and cell pellets by gamma irradiation. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15010043"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2017.09.020","article-title":"The effect of a non-denaturing detergent and a guanidinium-based inactivation agent on the viability of Ebola virus in mock clinical serum samples","volume":"250","author":"Burton","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2004.03.015","article-title":"Virus inactivation by nucleic acid extraction reagents","volume":"119","author":"Blow","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alfson, K.J., and Griffiths, A. (2018). Development and testing of a method for validating chemical inactivation of Ebola virus. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10030126"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3148","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01449-15","article-title":"Buffer AVL alone does not inactivate Ebola virus in a representative clinical sample type","volume":"53","author":"Smither","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatia, B., Feldmann, H., and Marzi, A. (2020). Kyasanur Forest disease and Alkhurma hemorrhagic fever virus\u2014Two neglected zoonotic pathogens. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8091406"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meister, T.L., Frericks, N., Kleinert, R.D.V., Rodriguez, E., Steinmann, J., Todt, D., Brown, R.J.P., and Steinmann, E. (2024). Inactivation of yellow fever virus by WHO-recommended hand rub formulations and surface disinfectants. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012264"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2763","article-title":"Development of a new hydrogen peroxide-based vaccine platform","volume":"18","author":"Amanna","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.14390","article-title":"Effective inactivation of a wide range of viruses by pasteurization","volume":"58","author":"Broumis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2687","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-014-2134-z","article-title":"Thermal inactivation of Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus","volume":"159","author":"Madani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2025.115146","article-title":"Complete inactivation of orthoflavi- and alphaviruses by acetone for safe titering by ELISA","volume":"335","author":"Loterio","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Idris, F., Muharram, S.H., Zaini, Z., and Diah, S. (2018). Effectiveness of physical inactivation methods of dengue virus: Heat-versus UV-inactivation. bioRxiv, Available online: https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/427666v1.","DOI":"10.1101\/427666"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacob, A.T., Ziegler, B.M., Farha, S.M., Vivian, L.R., Zilinski, C.A., Armstrong, A.R., Burdette, A.J., Beachboard, D.C., and Stobart, C.C. (2023). Sin Nombre virus and the emergence of other hantaviruses: A review of the biology, ecology, and disease of a zoonotic pathogen. Biology, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology12111413"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"The Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University (2025, April 10). Hantavirus Disease. Available online: https:\/\/www.cfsph.iastate.edu\/Factsheets\/pdfs\/hantavirus.pdf."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.81643-0","article-title":"Prolonged survival of Puumala hantavirus outside of the host: Evidence for indirect transmission via the environment","volume":"87","author":"Kallio","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02869-06","article-title":"Ex vivo stability of the rodent-borne Hantaan virus in comparison to that of arthropod-borne members of the Bunyaviridae family","volume":"73","author":"Hardestam","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2006.11.037","article-title":"Evaluation of the efficacy of disinfectants against Puumala hantavirus by real-time RT-PCR","volume":"141","author":"Maes","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1134\/S0003683820090045","article-title":"Effect of virus-inactivating agents on the immunogenicity of hantavirus vaccines against hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome","volume":"56","author":"Egorova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1159\/000084603","article-title":"Inactivation of Hantaan virus-containing samples for subsequent investigations outside biosafety level 3 facilities","volume":"48","author":"Kraus","year":"2005","journal-title":"Intervirology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02005-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02005-19","article-title":"Structure and characterization of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus GP38","volume":"94","author":"Mishra","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1111\/vox.12888","article-title":"Inactivation of three emerging viruses\u2014Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus and Nipah virus\u2014In platelet concentrates by ultraviolet C light, and in plasma by methylene blue plus visible light","volume":"115","author":"Eickmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vox Sanguin."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"The Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, College of Veterinary Medicine (2025, April 10). Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever. Available online: https:\/\/www.cfsph.iastate.edu\/Factsheets\/pdfs\/crimean_congo_hemorrhagic_fever.pdf."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Ferraris, O., Gay-Andrieu, F., Moroso, M., Jarjaval, F., Miller, M., and Peyrefitte, C.N. (2019, January 20\u201323). Complete hemorrhagic fever virus inactivation during lysis in the FilmArray BioThreat-E assay demonstrates the biosafety of this test. Proceedings of the 3rd International CBRNE Research & Innovation Conference, Nantes, France. Available online: https:\/\/www.biofiredefense.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/20180529_Poster-Biofire_CBRNE-2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-0934(88)90099-7","article-title":"Use of heat inactivated viral haemorrhagic fever antigens in serological assays","volume":"22","author":"Saluzzo","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afrough, B., Eakins, J., Durley-White, S., Dowall, S., Findlay-Wilson, S., Graham, V., Lewandowski, K., Carter, D.P., and Hewson, R. (2020). X-ray inactivation of RNA viruses without loss of biological characteristics. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-77972-5"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, April 10). Pathogens Prioritization. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.who.int\/media\/docs\/default-source\/consultation-rdb\/prioritization-pathogens-v6final.pdf?sfvrsn=c98effa7_7&download=true."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"The Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, College of Veterinary Medicine (2025, April 10). Nipah Virus Infection. Available online: https:\/\/www.cfsph.iastate.edu\/Factsheets\/pdfs\/nipah.pdf."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Branda, F., Ceccarelli, G., Giovenetti, M., Albanese, M., Binetti, E., Ciccozzi, M., and Scarpa, F. (2025). Nipah virus: A zoonotic threat reemerging in the wake of global public health challenges. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13010124"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"The Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, College of Veterinary Medicine (2025, April 10). Hendra Virus Infection. Available online: https:\/\/www.cfsph.iastate.edu\/Factsheets\/pdfs\/hendra.pdf."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Xiao, S., Song, D., and Yuan, Z. (2022). Evaluation and comparison of three virucidal agents on inactivation of Nipah virus. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15228-0"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smither, S.J., Eastaugh, L.S., O\u2019Brien, L.M., Phelps, A.L., and Lever, M.S. (2022). Aerosol survival, disinfection and formalin inactivation of Nipah virus. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14092057"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2007.11.010","article-title":"Henipavirus susceptibility to environmental variables","volume":"132","author":"Fogarty","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Widerspick, L., V\u00e1zquez, C.A., Niemetz, L., Heung, M., Olal, C., Bencsik, A., Henkel, C., Pfister, A., Brunetti, J.E., and Kucinskaite-Kodze, I. (2022). Inactivation methods for experimental Nipah virus infection. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14051052"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-020-01425-8","article-title":"Effective inactivation of Nipah virus in serum samples for safe processing in low-containment laboratories","volume":"17","author":"Watanabe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2021.114287","article-title":"Evaluation of henipavirus chemical inactivation methods for the safe removal of samples from the high-containment PC4 laboratory","volume":"298","author":"Edwards","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hume, A.J., Olejnik, J., White, M.R., Huang, J., Turcinovic, J., Heiden, B., Bawa, P.S., Williams, C.J., Gorman, N.G., and Alekseyev, Y.O. (2024). Heat inactivation of Nipah virus for downstream single-cell RNA sequencing does not interfere with sample quality. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13010062"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2019.113794","article-title":"Methods for successful inactivation of Rift Valley fever virus in infected mosquitos","volume":"276","author":"Bergren","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"31","article-title":"Inactivation of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus for improved laboratory safety","volume":"2","author":"Harada","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biosaf. Biosec."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dembek, Z.F., Mothershead, J.L., Cirimotich, C.M., and Wu, A. (2024). Heartland virus disease\u2014An underreported emerging infection. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12020286"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2013.01.014","article-title":"Inactivation of infectious virus and serological detection of virus antigen in Rift Valley fever virus-exposed mosquitos fixed with paraformaldehyde","volume":"189","author":"Kading","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romeo, M.A., Specchiarello, E., Mija, C., Zulian, V., Francalancia, M., Maggi, F., Garbuglia, A.R., and Lapa, D. (2024). Heat treatment as a safe-handling procedure for Rift Valley fever virus. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13121089"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Olayan, E.M., Mohamed, A.F., El-Khadraqy, M.F., Shebl, R.I., and Yehia, H.M. (2016). An alternative inactivant for Rift Valley fever virus using cobra venom-derived L-amino oxidase, which is related to its immune potential. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol., 59.","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-4324-2016160044"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1177\/153567601201700204","article-title":"Verification of inactivation methods for removal of biological materials from a biosafety level 3 select agent facility","volume":"17","author":"Hartman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Biosaf."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rangel, M.V., Bourguet, F.A., Hall, C.I., and Weilhammer, D.R. (2024). Evaluation of inactivation methods for Rift Valley fever virus in mouse microglia. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13020159"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lozach, P.Y. (2024). Validated methods for effective decontamination and inactivation of Rift Valley fever virus. Rift Valley Fever Virus. Methods in Molecular Biology, Humana.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-3926-9"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2025.115144","article-title":"The stability and elimination of mammalian enveloped and non-enveloped respiratory viruses in indoor air: Testing using a room-sized aerobiology chamber","volume":"8","author":"Zargar","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9914","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.9914","article-title":"Combating SARS-CoV-2: Leveraging microbicidal experiences with other emerging\/re-emerging viruses","volume":"8","author":"Ijaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ijaz, M.K., Nims, R.W., and McKinney, J. (2022). Emerging SARS-CoV-2 mutational variants of concern should not vary in susceptibility to microbicidal actives. Life, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/life12070987"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2015.11.018","article-title":"Emerging infectious diseases: Focus on infection control issues for novel coronaviruses (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-CoV and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-CoV), hemorrhagic fever viruses (Lassa and Ebola), and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses, A(H5N1) and A(H7N9)","volume":"44","author":"Weber","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025, April 10). Disinfectants for Emerging Viral Pathogens (EVPs): List Q, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/pesticide-registration\/disinfectants-emerging-viral-pathogens-evps-list-q."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hewson, R. (2024). Understanding viral haemorrhagic fevers: Virus diversity, vector ecology, and public health strategies. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13100909"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"27","article-title":"Understanding the transmission pathways of Lassa fever: A mathematical modeling approach","volume":"8","author":"Madueme","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Model."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.1890140402","article-title":"Effect of environmental factors on aerosol-induced Lassa virus infection","volume":"14","author":"Stephenson","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2035","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-010-0791-0","article-title":"Persistence in darkness of virulent alphaviruses, Ebola virus, and Lassa virus deposited on solid surfaces","volume":"155","author":"Sagripanti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mekibib, B., and Ari\u00ebn, K.K. (2016). Aerosol transmission of filoviruses. Viruses, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/v8050148"},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"48","article-title":"Comment on \u201cEbola virus persistence in the environment: State of the knowledge and research needs\u201d","volume":"2","author":"Lantagne","year":"2015","journal-title":"Env. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00137-15","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00137-15","article-title":"Transmission of Ebola viruses: What we know and what we do not know","volume":"6","author":"Osterholm","year":"2015","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1531","article-title":"The survival of filoviruses in liquids, on solid substrates and in a dynamic aerosol","volume":"109","author":"Piercy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2018.05.009","article-title":"Rift Valley fever in animals and humans: Current perspectives","volume":"156","author":"McMillen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2451","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-022-04300-0","article-title":"Molecular pathogenesis of Nipah virus","volume":"195","author":"Talukdar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imj.2024.100145","article-title":"Nipah virus resurgence: A call for preparedness across states","volume":"3","author":"Soni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)64493-8","article-title":"Nipah virus infection. Pathology and pathogenesis of an emerging paramyxoviral zoonosis","volume":"161","author":"Wong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rybicki, E.P. (2023). Panics and pandemics. Cann\u2019s Principles of Molecular Virology, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-822784-8.00008-8"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14244","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.22.14244-14252.2005","article-title":"Predicted inactivation of viruses of relevance to biodefense by solar radiation","volume":"79","author":"Lytle","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5875","DOI":"10.3390\/v7112912","article-title":"Psoralen inactivation of viruses: A process for the safe manipulation of viral antigen and nucleic acid","volume":"7","author":"Schneider","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.15807","article-title":"Inactivation of a broad spectrum of viruses and parasites by photochemical treatment of plasma and platelets using amotosalen and ultraviolet A light","volume":"60","author":"Lanteri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2008.03.002","article-title":"Pressure-inactivated yellow fever 17DD virus: Implications for vaccine development","volume":"150","author":"Gaspar","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol. Meth."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/5\/663\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:25:32Z","timestamp":1760030732000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/5\/663"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v17050663"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17050663","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]}}}