{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T15:17:13Z","timestamp":1791472633337,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747180800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institutes of Health (NIAID)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AI090059"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI090059"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Le Bonheur Children\u2019s Hospital and the Children\u2019s Foundation Research Institute","award":["AI090059"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI090059"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract viral infection in infants and causes around 60,000 in-hospital deaths annually. Emerging evidence suggests that RSV induces metabolic changes in host cells to support viral replication, presenting a potential target for therapeutic intervention. To investigate RSV-driven metabolic changes in situ, we combined positron emission tomography (PET), live-cell bioenergetics, and metabolomic profiling in the upper and lower airways of children. PET imaging revealed persistent, hyper-glycolytic regions in the lungs of RSV-infected children. Bioenergetic analysis of freshly collected nasopharyngeal aspirates from infants showed live upper respiratory cells (URCs) infected with RSV in situ exhibited significantly higher levels of glycolysis, glycolytic capacity, glycolytic reserves, and mitochondrial respiration than uninfected controls. Metabolomic analysis of nasopharyngeal fluids from these patients revealed distinct metabolic signatures, including increased citrate and malate, and decreases in taurine. In vitro infection of pediatric nasopharynx tissue-derived multicellular epithelial cultures (TEpiCs) and bronchial epithelial cells further confirmed RSV-induced increases in glycolysis. Together, these findings demonstrate that RSV infection induces hypermetabolism in both upper and lower primary airways in situ, supporting the potential of host-targeted metabolic interventions as a therapeutic strategy\u2014particularly in vulnerable populations such as infants for whom vaccines are not currently available.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17050703","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T10:27:41Z","timestamp":1747218461000},"page":"703","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Respiratory Syncytial Virus Elicits Glycolytic Metabolism in Pediatric Upper and Lower Airways"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6429-5706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Armando","family":"Flores-Torres","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Svetlana","family":"Rezinciuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lavanya","family":"Bezavada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barry","family":"Shulkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Imaging, St. Jude Children\u2019s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6050-6172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephania","family":"Cormier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heather","family":"Smallwood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-013-8368-9","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"45","author":"Borchers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00017-08","article-title":"Human genetic factors and respiratory syncytial virus disease severity","volume":"21","author":"Miyairi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7286","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00038-14","article-title":"Within-host whole-genome deep sequencing and diversity analysis of human respiratory syncytial virus infection reveals dynamics of genomic diversity in the absence and presence of immune pressure","volume":"88","author":"Grad","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1038\/80833","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors TLR4 and CD14 mediate response to respiratory syncytial virus","volume":"1","author":"Popova","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10730","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.22.10730-10737.2001","article-title":"Involvement of toll-like receptor 4 in innate immunity to respiratory syncytial virus","volume":"75","author":"Haynes","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00671-08","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus activates innate immunity through Toll-like receptor 2","volume":"83","author":"Murawski","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.1012498","article-title":"IL-4Ralpha on CD4+ T cells plays a pathogenic role in respiratory syncytial virus reinfection in mice infected initially as neonates","volume":"93","author":"You","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-6-122","article-title":"A role for airway remodeling during respiratory syncytial virus infection","volume":"6","author":"Becnel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985813480216","article-title":"The innate immune system of the perinatal lung and responses to respiratory syncytial virus infection","volume":"50","author":"Derscheid","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-017-0151-4","article-title":"The Burden and Long-term Respiratory Morbidity Associated with Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Early Childhood","volume":"6","author":"Fauroux","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singanayagam, A., Joshi, P.V., Mallia, P., and Johnston, S.L. (2012). Viruses exacerbating chronic pulmonary disease: The role of immune modulation. BMC Med., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-10-27"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flores-Torres, A.S., and Samarasinghe, A.E. (2022). Impact of Therapeutics on Unified Immunity During Allergic Asthma and Respiratory Infections. Front. Allergy, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/falgy.2022.852067"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Topalidou, X., Kalergis, A.M., and Papazisis, G. (2023). Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines: A Review of the Candidates and the Approved Vaccines. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12101259"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12851","article-title":"Fueling influenza and the immune response: Implications for metabolic reprogramming during influenza infection and immunometabolism","volume":"295","author":"Bahadoran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kleinehr, J., Wilden, J.J., Boergeling, Y., Ludwig, S., and Hrincius, E.R. (2021). Metabolic Modifications by Common Respiratory Viruses and Their Potential as New Antiviral Targets. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13102068"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adamko, D.J., Saude, E., Bear, M., Regush, S., and Robinson, J.L. (2016). Urine metabolomic profiling of children with respiratory tract infections in the emergency department: A pilot study. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1709-6"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix680","article-title":"Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Rhinovirus Bronchiolitis Are Associated With Distinct Metabolic Pathways","volume":"217","author":"Stewart","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13101","article-title":"Association of respiratory viruses with serum metabolome in infants with severe bronchiolitis","volume":"30","author":"Stewart","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s11306-018-1431-z","article-title":"Using urine metabolomics to understand the pathogenesis of infant respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection and its role in childhood wheezing","volume":"14","author":"Turi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin-Vicente, M., Gonzalez-Riano, C., Barbas, C., Jimenez-Sousa, M.A., Brochado-Kith, O., Resino, S., and Martinez, I. (2020). Metabolic changes during respiratory syncytial virus infection of epithelial cells. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230844"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1007\/s11306-023-01991-2","article-title":"Analysis of temporal metabolic rewiring for human respiratory syncytial virus infection by integrating metabolomics and proteomics","volume":"19","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42448","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.42448","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus co-opts host mitochondrial function to favour infectious virus production","volume":"8","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L.F., Cai, J.X., Zhang, J.J., Tang, Y.J., Chen, J.Y., Xiong, S., Li, Y.L., Zhang, H., Liu, Z., and Li, M.M. (2023). Respiratory syncytial virus co-opts hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha-mediated glycolysis to favor the production of infectious virus. mBio, 14.","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02110-23"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2836","DOI":"10.1002\/elps.201300228","article-title":"Distinct metabolic differences between various human cancer and primary cells","volume":"34","author":"Dettmer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Electrophoresis"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13106","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202000767R","article-title":"Mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity: Mechanisms, regulation, and significance in non-transformed and cancer cells","volume":"34","author":"Marchetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morris, D.R., Qu, Y., Agrawal, A., Garofalo, R.P., and Casola, A. (2020). HIF-1alpha Modulates Core Metabolism and Virus Replication in Primary Airway Epithelial Cells Infected with Respiratory Syncytial Virus. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12101088"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Connelly, A.R., Jeong, B.M., Coden, M.E., Cao, J.Y., Chirkova, T., Rosas-Salazar, C., Cephus, J.Y., Anderson, L.J., Newcomb, D.C., and Hartert, T.V. (2021). Metabolic Reprogramming of Nasal Airway Epithelial Cells Following Infant Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13102055"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.04.039","article-title":"Targeting Metabolic Reprogramming by Influenza Infection for Therapeutic Intervention","volume":"19","author":"Smallwood","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okda, F., Sakr, A., Webster, R., and Webby, R. (2021). Tropism, susceptibility, infectivity, and cytokine releases of differentiated human tonsillar epithelial cells by different Influenza viruses. bioRixv, preprint.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.05.03.442542"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3212","DOI":"10.1021\/ac902837x","article-title":"Metabolomic analysis via reversed-phase ion-pairing liquid chromatography coupled to a stand alone orbitrap mass spectrometer","volume":"82","author":"Lu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R110 000133","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.R110.000133","article-title":"mzML\u2014A community standard for mass spectrometry data","volume":"10","author":"Martens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Proteom."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2377","article-title":"A cross-platform toolkit for mass spectrometry and proteomics","volume":"30","author":"Chambers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9818","DOI":"10.1021\/ac1021166","article-title":"Metabolomic analysis and visualization engine for LC-MS data","volume":"82","author":"Melamud","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14.11.1","DOI":"10.1002\/0471250953.bi1411s37","article-title":"LC-MS data processing with MAVEN: A metabolomic analysis and visualization engine","volume":"37","author":"Clasquin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s40644-016-0091-3","article-title":"How We Read Oncologic FDG PET\/CT","volume":"16","author":"Hofman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cancer Imaging"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30938-8","article-title":"Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children in 2015: A systematic review and modelling study","volume":"390","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.4A1216-536R","article-title":"IL-4Ralpha on dendritic cells in neonates and Th2 immunopathology in respiratory syncytial virus infection","volume":"102","author":"Shrestha","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2409","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-023-04669-4","article-title":"Reprogramming of glucose metabolism in virus infected cells","volume":"478","author":"Goyal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104806","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2020.104806","article-title":"Antiviral efficacy against influenza virus and pharmacokinetic analysis of a novel MEK-inhibitor, ATR-002, in cell culture and in the mouse model","volume":"178","author":"Laure","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koch-Heier, J., Schonsiegel, A., Waidele, L.M., Volk, J., Full, Y., Wallasch, C., Canisius, S., Burnet, M., and Planz, O. (2022). Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Antiviral Efficacy of the MEK Inhibitor Zapnometinib in Animal Models and in Humans. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.893635"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2023.102237","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of zapnometinib in hospitalised adult patients with COVID-19 (RESPIRE): A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre, proof-of-concept, phase 2 trial","volume":"65","author":"Rohde","year":"2023","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2019.1604084","article-title":"Targeting host metabolism by inhibition of acetyl-Coenzyme A carboxylase reduces flavivirus infection in mouse models","volume":"8","author":"Esler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1111\/jphp.12349","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of mitochondria in respiratory epithelial cells infected with human respiratory syncytial virus and functional implications for virus and cell biology","volume":"67","author":"Munday","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2023.01.013","article-title":"Air-liquid interface (ALI) impact on different respiratory cell cultures","volume":"184","author":"Silva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teoh, S.T., Leimanis-Laurens, M.L., Comstock, S.S., Winters, J.W., Vandenbosch, N.L., Prokop, J.W., Bachmann, A.S., Lunt, S.Y., and Rajasekaran, S. (2022). Combined Plasma and Urinary Metabolomics Uncover Metabolic Perturbations Associated with Severe Respiratory Syncytial Viral Infection and Future Development of Asthma in Infant Patients. Metabolites, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12020178"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-10-22","article-title":"Bioenergetics of murine lungs infected with respiratory syncytial virus","volume":"10","author":"Alsuwaidi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1038\/nature24057","article-title":"Glucose feeds the TCA cycle via circulating lactate","volume":"551","author":"Hui","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.103300","article-title":"Influenza A induces lactate formation to inhibit type I IFN in primary human airway epithelium","volume":"24","author":"Thyrsted","year":"2021","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e140327","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.140327","article-title":"COVID-19 infection alters kynurenine and fatty acid metabolism, correlating with IL-6 levels and renal status","volume":"5","author":"Thomas","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2023.101254","article-title":"Sequential multi-omics analysis identifies clinical phenotypes and predictive biomarkers for long COVID","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Hernandez, Y., Monarrez-Espino, J., Lopez, D.A.G., Zheng, J., Borrego, J.C., Torres-Calzada, C., Elizalde-Diaz, J.P., Mandal, R., Berjanskii, M., and Martinez-Martinez, E. (2023). The plasma metabolome of long COVID patients two years after infection. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-39049-x"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jong, C.J., Sandal, P., and Schaffer, S.W. (2021). The Role of Taurine in Mitochondria Health: More Than Just an Antioxidant. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26164913"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-12-102","article-title":"Nasal lavage natural killer cell function is suppressed in smokers after live attenuated influenza virus","volume":"12","author":"Horvath","year":"2011","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-8-17","article-title":"Expression of Toll-like receptor 9 in nose, peripheral blood and bone marrow during symptomatic allergic rhinitis","volume":"8","author":"Fransson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wjorl.2021.04.003","article-title":"Anatomy and physiology of the palatine tonsils, adenoids, and lingual tonsils","volume":"7","author":"Arambula","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Otorhinolaryngol. Head. Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Proenca-Modena, J.L., Pereira Valera, F.C., Jacob, M.G., Buzatto, G.P., Saturno, T.H., Lopes, L., Souza, J.M., Escremim Paula, F., Silva, M.L., and Carenzi, L.R. (2012). High rates of detection of respiratory viruses in tonsillar tissues from children with chronic adenotonsillar disease. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0042136"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12396","article-title":"Distinct regulation of tonsillar immune response in virus infection","volume":"69","author":"Jartti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2014.07.015","article-title":"Respiratory viruses are continuously detected in children with chronic tonsillitis throughout the year","volume":"78","author":"Buzatto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mookerjee, S.A., Nicholls, D.G., and Brand, M.D. (2016). Determining Maximum Glycolytic Capacity Using Extracellular Flux Measurements. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0152016"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2014.02.028","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus increases lung cellular bioenergetics in neonatal C57BL\/6 mice","volume":"454\u2013455","author":"Alsuwaidi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20110162","article-title":"Assessing mitochondrial dysfunction in cells","volume":"435","author":"Brand","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1515\/hsz-2012-0198","article-title":"Integration of cellular bioenergetics with mitochondrial quality control and autophagy","volume":"393","author":"Hill","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2021-0313OC","article-title":"IL-1\u03b2 Promotes Expansion of IL-33(+) Lung Epithelial Stem Cells after Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection during Infancy","volume":"66","author":"Vu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201812-2366OC","article-title":"Elevated Levels of Type 2 Respiratory Innate Lymphoid Cells in Human Infants with Severe Respiratory Syncytial Virus Bronchiolitis","volume":"200","author":"Vu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.08.043","article-title":"IL-1\/inhibitory \u03baB kinase \u03b5-induced glycolysis augment epithelial effector function and promote allergic airways disease","volume":"142","author":"Qian","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finucane, O.M., Sugrue, J., Rubio-Araiz, A., Guillot-Sestier, M.-V., and Lynch, M.A. (2019). The NLRP3 inflammasome modulates glycolysis by increasing PFKFB3 in an IL-1\u03b2-dependent manner in macrophages. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-40619-1"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2680","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.138.7.5229","article-title":"Interleukin (IL)-1beta increases glucose uptake and induces glycolysis in aerobically cultured rat ovarian cells: Evidence that IL-1beta may mediate the gonadotropin-induced midcycle metabolic shift","volume":"138","author":"Kol","year":"1997","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13404","article-title":"IL-33 activates mTORC1 and modulates glycolytic metabolism in CD8(+) T cells","volume":"165","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e129429","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.129429","article-title":"Interleukin-33 regulates metabolic reprogramming of the retinal pigment epithelium in response to immune stressors","volume":"6","author":"Scott","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caslin, H.L., Taruselli, M.T., Haque, T., Pondicherry, N., Baldwin, E.A., Barnstein, B.O., and Ryan, J.J. (2018). Inhibiting Glycolysis and ATP Production Attenuates IL-33-Mediated Mast Cell Function and Peritonitis. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.03026"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Liu, J., Ma, R., Hao, J., Liang, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, A., Meng, H., and Lu, J. (2022). Interleukin-33: Metabolic checkpoints, metabolic processes, and epigenetic regulation in immune cells. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.900826"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/5\/703\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:32:34Z","timestamp":1760031154000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/5\/703"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v17050703"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17050703","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]}}}