{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T02:13:47Z","timestamp":1781489627853,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,9]],"date-time":"2025-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752019200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Culture of Lower Saxony, Germany","award":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Culture of Lower Saxony, Germany","award":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Culture of Lower Saxony, Germany","award":["AFR15686728"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AFR15686728"]}]},{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG; German Research Foundation)","award":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"]}]},{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG; German Research Foundation)","award":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"]}]},{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG; German Research Foundation)","award":["AFR15686728"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AFR15686728"]}]},{"name":"National Research Fund (FNR), Luxembourg","award":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"]}]},{"name":"National Research Fund (FNR), Luxembourg","award":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"]}]},{"name":"National Research Fund (FNR), Luxembourg","award":["AFR15686728"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AFR15686728"]}]},{"name":"University of Veterinary Medicine, Foundation, Hannover, Germany","award":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["14-76103-184 CORONA-15\/20"]}]},{"name":"University of Veterinary Medicine, Foundation, Hannover, Germany","award":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/2"]}]},{"name":"University of Veterinary Medicine, Foundation, Hannover, Germany","award":["AFR15686728"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AFR15686728"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is known to affect multiple organ systems, including the respiratory tract and nervous and ocular systems. This retrospective study aimed to characterize the spatiotemporal distribution of viral antigen and associated pathological changes in the nose, lungs, brain, and eyes of K18-hACE2 mice intranasally infected with SARS-CoV-2. Using histology and immunohistochemistry, tissues were examined at 3, 6, and 7\/8 days post-infection (dpi). In addition, lung and brain tissues were analyzed by means of RT-qPCR to determine viral RNA titers. Viral antigen was most pronounced in the nose, brain, and lung at 3, 6, and 7\/8 dpi, respectively, whereas viral antigen was detected at 6 and 7\/8 dpi in the retina. Quantitative PCR confirmed increasing viral RNA levels in both lung and brain, peaking at 7\/8 dpi. Nasal and lung inflammation mirrored viral antigen distribution and localization. In the brain, the predominantly basal viral spread correlated with lymphohistiocytic meningoencephalitis, neuronal vacuolation, and altered neurofilament immunoreactivity. Retinal ganglion cells showed viral antigen expression without associated lesions. Microglial activation was evident in both the optic chiasm and the brain. These findings highlight the K18-hACE2 model\u2019s utility for studying extrapulmonary SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis. Understanding the temporal and spatial dynamics of viral spread enhances insights into SARS-CoV-2 neurotropism and its clinical manifestations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17070963","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,11]],"date-time":"2025-07-11T15:19:31Z","timestamp":1752247171000},"page":"963","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Spatiotemporal Characterization of Changes in the Respiratory Tract and the Nervous System, Including the Eyes in SARS-CoV-2-Infected K18-hACE2 Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5117-3989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Malgorzata","family":"Rosiak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Center for Systems Neuroscience, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0978-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom","family":"Schreiner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Center for Systems Neuroscience, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2192-2413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georg","family":"Beythien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Center for Systems Neuroscience, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3818-9246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Leitzen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Center for Systems Neuroscience, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasiya","family":"Ulianytska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa","family":"Allnoch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathrin","family":"Becker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lukas M.","family":"Michaely","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra","family":"Lockow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabrina","family":"Clever","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Meyer zu Natrup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8757-3896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asisa","family":"Volz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Systems Neuroscience, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, 30159 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8151-5644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Baumg\u00e4rtner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Malgorzata","family":"Ciurkiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirsten","family":"H\u00fclsk\u00f6tter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1270-312X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katharina M.","family":"Gregor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30159 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0968-3","article-title":"Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19","volume":"26","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0000000000001275","article-title":"Pathology of the brain and the eye in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2-infected patients: A review","volume":"41","author":"Champion","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroopthalmol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.18502\/jovr.v16i1.8256","article-title":"Ocular manifestations of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Nasiri","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmic Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vashishtha, V.M., and Kumar, P. (2023). Preliminary clinical characteristics of pediatric COVID-19 cases during the ongoing Omicron XBB.1.16 driven surge in a north Indian city. medRxiv, 2023.2004.2018.23288715.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.04.18.23288715"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, J., He, F., Chen, Q., Li, Q., Zhao, L., and Du, Y. (2025). Animal models of post-acute COVID-19 syndrome: A call for longitudinal animal studies. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1521029"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2316438","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2024.2316438","article-title":"Pathogenesis and virulence of coronavirus disease: Comparative pathology of animal models for COVID-19","volume":"15","author":"Kirk","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/08830185.2022.2089666","article-title":"Natural and genetically-modified animal models to investigate pulmonary and extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19","volume":"43","author":"Tiwari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vanderheiden, A., and Diamond, M.S. (2025). Animal models of non-respiratory, post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. Viruses, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/v17010098"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70237","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.70237","article-title":"Animal models for long COVID: Current advances, limitations, and future directions","volume":"97","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02012-06","article-title":"Lethal infection of K18-hACE2 mice infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"81","author":"McCray","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00964-21","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00964-21","article-title":"The K18-human ACE2 transgenic mouse model recapitulates non-severe and severe COVID-19 in response to an infectious dose of the SARS-CoV-2 virus","volume":"96","author":"Dong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carossino, M., Kenney, D., O\u2019Connell, A.K., Montanaro, P., Tseng, A.E., Gertje, H.P., Grosz, K.A., Ericsson, M., Huber, B.R., and Kurnick, S.A. (2022). Fatal neurodissemination and SARS-CoV-2 tropism in K18-hACE2 mice is only partially dependent on hACE2 expression. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14030535"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dedoni, S., Avdoshina, V., Camoglio, C., Siddi, C., Fratta, W., Scherma, M., and Fadda, P. (2022). K18- and CAG-hACE2 transgenic mouse models and SARS-CoV-2: Implications for neurodegeneration research. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27134142"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-0778-2","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection of human ACE2-transgenic mice causes severe lung inflammation and impaired function","volume":"21","author":"Winkler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2943-z","article-title":"COVID-19 treatments and pathogenesis including anosmia in K18-hACE2 mice","volume":"589","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6122","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19891-7","article-title":"Lethality of SARS-CoV-2 infection in K18 human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 transgenic mice","volume":"11","author":"Oladunni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yinda, C.K., Port, J.R., Bushmaker, T., Offei Owusu, I., Purushotham, J.N., Avanzato, V.A., Fischer, R.J., Schulz, J.E., Holbrook, M.G., and Hebner, M.J. (2021). K18-hACE2 mice develop respiratory disease resembling severe COVID-19. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009195"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1177\/03009858211071016","article-title":"Comparative pathology of the nasal epithelium in K18-hACE2 Tg mice, hACE2 Tg mice, and hamsters infected with SARS-CoV-2","volume":"59","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumari, P., Rothan, H.A., Natekar, J.P., Stone, S., Pathak, H., Strate, P.G., Arora, K., Brinton, M.A., and Kumar, M. (2021). Neuroinvasion and Encephalitis Following Intranasal Inoculation of SARS-CoV-2 in K18-hACE2 Mice. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.12.14.422714"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/nan.12667","article-title":"Invited Review: The spectrum of neuropathology in COVID-19","volume":"47","author":"Troakes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2022.02.006","article-title":"The neuroinvasiveness, neurotropism, and neurovirulence of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"45","author":"Bauer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26570","article-title":"Evidence of central nervous system infection and neuroinvasive routes, as well as neurological involvement, in the lethality of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"93","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(20)30308-2","article-title":"Neuropathology of patients with COVID-19 in Germany: A post-mortem case series","volume":"19","author":"Matschke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-00758-5","article-title":"Olfactory transmucosal SARS-CoV-2 invasion as a port of central nervous system entry in individuals with COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Meinhardt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1177\/03009858211066841","article-title":"Chronological brain lesions after SARS-CoV-2 infection in hACE2-transgenic mice","volume":"59","author":"Vidal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seehusen, F., Clark, J.J., Sharma, P., Bentley, E.G., Kirby, A., Subramaniam, K., Wunderlin-Giuliani, S., Hughes, G.L., Patterson, E.I., and Michael, B.D. (2022). Neuroinvasion and Neurotropism by SARS-CoV-2 Variants in the K18-hACE2 Mouse. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14051020"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2024.102608","article-title":"Ocular manifestations of COVID-19: A systematic review of current evidence","volume":"38","author":"SeyedAlinaghi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prev. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-020-0926-9","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 (SARS-CoV-2) and colonization of ocular tissues and secretions: A systematic review","volume":"34","author":"Aiello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brechb\u00fchl, J., Ferreira, F., Lopes, A.C., Corset, E., Gilliand, N., and Broillet, M.C. (2023). Ocular Symptoms Associated with COVID-19 Are Correlated with the Expression Profile of Mouse SARS-CoV-2 Binding Sites. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15020354"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2020.05.013","article-title":"Co-expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry genes in the superficial adult human conjunctival, limbal and corneal epithelium suggests an additional route of entry via the ocular surface","volume":"19","author":"Collin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-020-0939-4","article-title":"Expression of SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in human primary conjunctival and pterygium cell lines and in mouse cornea","volume":"34","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2020.06.007","article-title":"ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are expressed on the human ocular surface, suggesting susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"18","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0140322","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.01403-22","article-title":"Detection of airborne influenza A and SARS-CoV-2 virus shedding following ocular inoculation of ferrets","volume":"96","author":"Belser","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4400","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18149-6","article-title":"Ocular conjunctival inoculation of SARS-CoV-2 can cause mild COVID-19 in rhesus macaques","volume":"11","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7675","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-35225-1","article-title":"Ocular tropism of SARS-CoV-2 in animal models with retinal inflammation via neuronal invasion following intranasal inoculation","volume":"13","author":"Jeong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monu, M., Ahmad, F., Olson, R.M., Balendiran, V., and Singh, P.K. (2024). SARS-CoV-2 infects cells lining the blood-retinal barrier and induces a hyperinflammatory immune response in the retina via systemic exposure. PLoS Pathog., 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1012156"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2020.11.002","article-title":"Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in human post-mortem ocular tissues","volume":"19","author":"Sawant","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1080\/09273948.2020.1770301","article-title":"Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Human Retinal Biopsies of Deceased COVID-19 Patients","volume":"28","author":"Casagrande","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2021.2795","article-title":"Presumed SARS-CoV-2 viral particles in the human retina of patients with COVID-19","volume":"139","author":"Marcos","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2023.02.016","article-title":"Histopathology and SARS-CoV-2 cellular localization in eye tissues of COVID-19 autopsies","volume":"193","author":"Sen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2021.09.007","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 and its beta variant of concern infect human conjunctival epithelial cells and induce differential antiviral innate immune response","volume":"23","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2022.02.015","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infects and replicates in photoreceptor and retinal ganglion cells of human retinal organoids","volume":"17","author":"Schreiber","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2021.09.019","article-title":"COVID-19-related retinal micro-vasculopathy\u2014A review of current evidence","volume":"235","author":"Teo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1080\/09273948.2020.1738501","article-title":"Can the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Affect the Eyes? A review of coronaviruses and ocular implications in humans and animals","volume":"28","author":"Seah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1177\/03009858221088786","article-title":"Histochemical staining techniques in Culex pipiens and Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera) with a comparison to mammals","volume":"59","author":"Gregor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clever, S., Limpinsel, L., Meyer zu Natrup, C., Sch\u00fcnemann, L.-M., Beythien, G., Rosiak, M., H\u00fclsk\u00f6tter, K., Gregor, K.M., Tuchel, T., and Kalodimou, G. (2024). Single MVA-SARS-2-ST\/N vaccination rapidly protects K18-hACE2 mice against a lethal SARS-CoV-2 challenge infection. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/v16030417"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e159895","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI159895","article-title":"Stabilized recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen enhances vaccine immunogenicity and protective capacity","volume":"132","author":"Tscherne","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12797","article-title":"Plasticity of microglia","volume":"97","author":"Arrifano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2025, April 22). Allen Mouse Brain Atlas. Available online: https:\/\/mouse.brain-map.org\/static\/atlas."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bankhead, P., Loughrey, M.B., Fern\u00e1ndez, J.A., Dombrowski, Y., McArt, D.G., Dunne, P.D., McQuaid, S., Gray, R.T., Murray, L.J., and Coleman, H.G. (2017). QuPath: Open source software for digital pathology image analysis. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17204-5"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-020-00310-8","article-title":"Autopsy findings in COVID-19-related deaths: A literature review","volume":"17","author":"Maiese","year":"2021","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e174439","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI174439","article-title":"Evolution of nasal and olfactory infection characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"134","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, A., Mantri, C.K., Tan, C.W., Saron, W.A.A., Nagaraj, S.K., Kala, M.P., Joy, C.M., Rathore, A.P.S., Tripathi, S., and Wang, L.F. (2024). Mucosal SARS-CoV-2 vaccination of rodents elicits superior systemic T central memory function and cross-neutralising antibodies against variants of concern. eBioMedicine, 99.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104924"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-022-01426-4","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo differences in neurovirulence between D614G, Delta And Omicron BA.1 SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"10","author":"Bauer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858420956905","article-title":"Anosmia in COVID-19: Underlying mechanisms and assessment of an olfactory route to brain infection","volume":"27","author":"Butowt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-022-00529-9","article-title":"The route of SARS-CoV-2 to brain infection: Have we been barking up the wrong tree?","volume":"17","author":"Butowt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(20)30221-0","article-title":"Neurological associations of COVID-19","volume":"19","author":"Ellul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-023-00769-8","article-title":"The neurobiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"25","author":"Meinhardt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2019373","article-title":"Neuropathological features of COVID-19","volume":"383","author":"Solomon","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-021-00290-1","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection in the mouse olfactory system","volume":"7","author":"Ye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, S., Lee, J., Kim, S., Lee, Y.W., Kim, G.C., Hong, S.M., An, S.H., Noh, H., Kim, K.E., and On, D. (2024). A longitudinal molecular and cellular lung atlas of lethal SARS-CoV-2 infection in K18-hACE2 transgenic mice. eBioMedicine, 99.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104932"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e142032","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.142032","article-title":"Human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 transgenic mice infected with SARS-CoV-2 develop severe and fatal respiratory disease","volume":"5","author":"Golden","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.20-0762","article-title":"Evaluation of K18-hACE2 mice as a model of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"103","author":"Moreau","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1177\/03009858211043084","article-title":"Cellular tropism of SARS-CoV-2 in the respiratory tract of Syrian hamsters and B6.Cg-Tg(K18-ACE2)2Prlmn\/J transgenic mice","volume":"59","author":"Yen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02469-23","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.02469-23","article-title":"Spatiotemporal analysis of SARS-CoV-2 infection reveals an expansive wave of monocyte-derived macrophages associated with vascular damage and virus clearance in hamster lungs","volume":"12","author":"Bagato","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beythien, G., de le Roi, M., Stanelle-Bertram, S., Armando, F., Heydemann, L., Rosiak, M., Becker, S., Lamers, M.M., Kaiser, F.K., and Haagmans, B.L. (2024). Detection of double-stranded RNA intermediates during SARS-CoV-2 infections of Syrian Golden hamsters with monoclonal antibodies and its implications for histopathological evaluation of in vivo studies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252111425"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1343","DOI":"10.1002\/iid3.1343","article-title":"Post-COVID pulmonary injury in K18-hACE2 mice shows persistent neutrophils and neutrophil extracellular trap formation","volume":"12","author":"Giannakopoulos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immun. Inflamm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dmm049632","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.049632","article-title":"Comparison of the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection in K18-hACE2 mouse and Syrian golden hamster models","volume":"15","author":"Jeong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.H., Kim, J., Jang, J.Y., Noh, H., Park, J., Jeong, H., Jeon, D., Uhm, C., Oh, H., and Cho, K. (2022). Mouse models of lung-specific SARS-CoV-2 infection with moderate pathological traits. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1105713"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pons-Grifols, A., Tarres-Freixas, F., Perez, M., Riveira-Munoz, E., Raich-Regue, D., Perez-Zsolt, D., Munoz-Basagoiti, J., Tondelli, B., Pradenas, E., and Izquierdo-Useros, N. (2025). A human-ACE2 knock-in mouse model for SARS-CoV-2 infection recapitulates respiratory disorders but avoids neurological disease associated with the transgenic K18-hACE2 model. mBio, 16.","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00720-25"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.108488","article-title":"The Roborovski Dwarf hamster is a highly susceptible model for a rapid and fatal course of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"33","author":"Trimpert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3519","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-31200-y","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant causes mild pathology in the upper and lower respiratory tract of hamsters","volume":"13","author":"Armando","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00432-8","article-title":"Spatial resolution of SARS-CoV-2 lung infection","volume":"20","author":"Pia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2342-5","article-title":"Pathogenesis and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in golden hamsters","volume":"583","author":"Sia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.10.040","article-title":"Systemic and mucosal antibody responses specific to SARS-CoV-2 during mild versus severe COVID-19","volume":"147","author":"Cervia","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabl9929","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abl9929","article-title":"Administration of aerosolized SARS-CoV-2 to K18-hACE2 mice uncouples respiratory infection from fatal neuroinvasion","volume":"7","author":"Fumagalli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-021-00523-8","article-title":"A cohort autopsy study defines COVID-19 systemic pathogenesis","volume":"31","author":"Yao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-020-01079-7","article-title":"Central nervous system manifestations associated with COVID-19","volume":"20","author":"Divani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"2","article-title":"Neuropathology of COVID-19 (neuro-COVID): Clinicopathological update","volume":"2","author":"Lou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Free Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-023-01566-1","article-title":"SARS-Cov-2 infection and neuropathological findings: A report of 18 cases and review of the literature","volume":"11","author":"Lebrun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2011400","article-title":"Multiorgan and renal tropism of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"383","author":"Puelles","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20202135","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20202135","article-title":"Neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 in human and mouse brain","volume":"218","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12889","article-title":"Neuropathologic features of four autopsied COVID-19 patients","volume":"30","author":"Kantonen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1443-2","article-title":"The role of microglia in viral encephalitis: A review","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-018-1885-0","article-title":"Microglia control the spread of neurotropic virus infection via P2Y12 signalling and recruit monocytes through P2Y12-independent mechanisms","volume":"136","author":"Fekete","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759091420954960","DOI":"10.1177\/1759091420954960","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 impact on the central nervous system: Are astrocytes and microglia main players or merely bystanders?","volume":"12","author":"Murta","year":"2020","journal-title":"ASN Neuro"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2901","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-024-01102-6","article-title":"Age associated susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection in the K18-hACE2 transgenic mouse model","volume":"46","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2024","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aw, Z.Q., Mok, C.K., Wong, Y.H., Chen, H., Mak, T.M., Lin, R.T.P., Lye, D.C., Tan, K.S., and Chu, J.J.H. (2022). Early pathogenesis profiles across SARS-CoV-2 variants in K18-hACE2 mice revealed differential triggers of lung damages. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.950666"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeong, G.U., Lyu, J., Kim, K.D., Chung, Y.C., Yoon, G.Y., Lee, S., Hwang, I., Shin, W.H., Ko, J., and Lee, J.Y. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 infection of microglia elicits proinflammatory activation and apoptotic cell death. Microbiol. Spectr., 10.","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01091-22"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e60","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2009787","article-title":"Large-vessel stroke as a presenting feature of COVID-19 in the young","volume":"382","author":"Oxley","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2015","article-title":"Systemic infections and inflammation affect chronic neurodegeneration","volume":"7","author":"Perry","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-013-0382-8","article-title":"Microglia and macrophages of the central nervous system: The contribution of microglia priming and systemic inflammation to chronic neurodegeneration","volume":"35","author":"Perry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tremblay, M.E., Madore, C., Bordeleau, M., Tian, L., and Verkhratsky, A. (2020). Neuropathobiology of COVID-19: The role for glia. Front. Cell Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2020.592214"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02309-6","article-title":"The semantics of microglia activation: Neuroinflammation, homeostasis, and stress","volume":"18","author":"Woodburn","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-008-8033-0","article-title":"Review of the multiple aspects of neurofilament functions, and their possible contribution to neurodegeneration","volume":"38","author":"Perrot","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(74)90002-X","article-title":"Calcium-induced degeneration of axoplasm in isolated segments of rat peripheral nerve","volume":"69","author":"Schlaepfer","year":"1974","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6126","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.80.19.6126","article-title":"Monoclonal antibodies distinguish phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of neurofilaments in situ","volume":"80","author":"Sternberger","year":"1983","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s004410051013","article-title":"Monoclonal antibodies SMI 311 and SMI 312 as tools to investigate the maturation of nerve cells and axonal patterns in human fetal brain","volume":"291","author":"Ulfig","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010999509251","article-title":"Neurofilament protein synthesis and phosphorylation","volume":"29","author":"Grant","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurocytol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2007.04.010","article-title":"Role of phosphorylation on the structural dynamics and function of types III and IV intermediate filaments","volume":"313","author":"Sihag","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199801293380502","article-title":"Axonal transection in the lesions of multiple sclerosis","volume":"338","author":"Trapp","year":"1998","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, A., Rao, M.V., and Nixon, R.A. (2017). Neurofilaments and neurofilament proteins in health and disease. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol., 9.","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a018309"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2014.12.014","article-title":"Amyloid-\u03b2 precursor protein: Multiple fragments, numerous transport routes and mechanisms","volume":"334","author":"Muresan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3208","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-024-04244-3","article-title":"Emerging Trends: Neurofilament Biomarkers in Precision Neurology","volume":"49","author":"Sharma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diez-Cirarda, M., Yus-Fuertes, M., Sanchez-Sanchez, R., Gonzalez-Rosa, J.J., Gonzalez-Escamilla, G., Gil-Martinez, L., Delgado-Alonso, C., Gil-Moreno, M.J., Valles-Salgado, M., and Cano-Cano, F. (2023). Hippocampal subfield abnormalities and biomarkers of pathologic brain changes: From SARS-CoV-2 acute infection to post-COVID syndrome. eBioMedicine, 94.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104711"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2024.02.002","article-title":"Systemic inflammation relates to neuroaxonal damage associated with long-term cognitive dysfunction in COVID-19 patients","volume":"117","author":"Duindam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3106","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-024-02554-0","article-title":"Long COVID: Plasma levels of neurofilament light chain in mild COVID-19 patients with neurocognitive symptoms","volume":"29","author":"Gutman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zingaropoli, M.A., Pasculli, P., Barbato, C., Petrella, C., Fiore, M., Dominelli, F., Latronico, T., Ciccone, F., Antonacci, M., and Liuzzi, G.M. (2023). Biomarkers of neurological damage: From acute stage to post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12182270"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.01.021","article-title":"Impaired axonal transport and neurofilament compaction occur in separate populations of injured axons following diffuse brain injury in the immature rat","volume":"1263","author":"DiLeonardi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1093\/jnen\/nlw114","article-title":"Synaptophysin is a reliable marker for axonal damage","volume":"76","author":"Gudi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.87.4.1561","article-title":"Precursor of amyloid protein in Alzheimer disease undergoes fast anterograde axonal transport","volume":"87","author":"Koo","year":"1990","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-020-02166-2","article-title":"Neuropathology of COVID-19: A spectrum of vascular and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)-like pathology","volume":"140","author":"Reichard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2022.578011","article-title":"Atypical myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated optic neuritis and acute demyelinating polyneuropathy after SARS-CoV-2 infection: Case report and literature review","volume":"375","author":"Bosello","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, J., and Danesh-Meyer, H.V. (2024). A review of neuro-ophthalmic sequelae following COVID-19 infection and vaccination. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1345683"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"454","article-title":"Alterations in the optic nerve and retina in patients with COVID-19. A theoretical review","volume":"98","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Soc. Esp. Oftalmol. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"289","article-title":"Optic neuropathies post-COVID 19\u2014Review","volume":"66","author":"Sfredel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rom. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajoc.2023.101876","article-title":"Panuveitis and optic neuropathy following SARS-COV-2 in the absence of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in a child","volume":"32","author":"Land","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_118","first-page":"665","article-title":"Infectability of human BrainSphere neurons suggests neurotropism of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"37","author":"Bullen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Altex"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.02.020","article-title":"The variant gambit: COVID-19\u2019s next move","volume":"29","author":"Plante","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.012","article-title":"Deep mutational scanning of SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain reveals constraints on folding and ACE2 binding","volume":"182","author":"Starr","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., VanBlargan, L.A., Bloyet, L.M., Rothlauf, P.W., Chen, R.E., Stumpf, S., Zhao, H., Errico, J.M., Theel, E.S., and Liebeskind, M.J. (2021). Landscape analysis of escape variants identifies SARS-CoV-2 spike mutations that attenuate monoclonal and serum antibody neutralization. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.11.06.372037"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2023.03.023","article-title":"Retinal pathology in COVID-19: Will animal models help us?","volume":"203","author":"Gregor","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/7\/963\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:07:07Z","timestamp":1760033227000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/7\/963"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,9]]},"references-count":122,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v17070963"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17070963","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,9]]}}}