{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T16:56:22Z","timestamp":1787590582072,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755820800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ)","award":["18.2046.3-002.00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18.2046.3-002.00"]}]},{"name":"German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ)","award":["81253667"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81253667"]}]},{"name":"African Union Commission","award":["18.2046.3-002.00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18.2046.3-002.00"]}]},{"name":"African Union Commission","award":["81253667"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81253667"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) live attenuated vaccines, the PPR virus (PPRV) Nigeria 75\/1 strain (lineage II) and PPRV India Sungry 96 strain (lineage IV), currently used for control and eradication programme are very efficient vaccines as they provide the host, sheep and goats, a lifelong immunity after a single minimum recommended dose of 102.5 TCID50\/mL. Unfortunately, both live attenuated vaccines are thermolabile and their use requires maintaining the cold chain from the manufactory premises to the field as most PPR-infected regions are facing of hot climate, with poor infrastructure, and the maintenance of an effective cold chain remains a challenge. To address this challenge, efforts have focused on developing thermotolerant (ThT) PPR vaccines using different stabilisers and improving the freeze-drying process. This study aimed to define the criteria for the evaluation of the stability of ThT PPR vaccines. A total of 37 batches of freeze-dried PPR vaccines using the PPRV Nigeria 75\/1 strain, including eight (8) and twenty-nine (29) vaccines labelled as ThT and conventional formulations, respectively, were tested to evaluate the stability at temperatures of 40 \u00b0C to simulate the field conditions in some hot climate regions. All the vaccine batches included in this study initially showed acceptable levels of residual moisture, below 3%, and titres above the minimum WOAH standard requirement of 102.5 TCID50\/mL. Following the incubation at 40 \u00b0C, 56.7% and 46% of the 37 vaccine batches tested retained titres above 102.5 TCID50\/mL on day 3 and day 5, respectively. These vaccines use stabilisers such as skimmed milk, lactalbumin\u2013sucrose, trehalose and one unnamed product (which may be protected for patent). The mean of titre loss among the PPR vaccines maintaining titres above 102.5 TCID50\/mL was 0.78 log10 at day 3 and 0.99 log10 at day 5, suggesting a significant early degradation during the first 3 days. Based on these data, it is proposed that thermotolerant PPR vaccines should maintain a minimum titre of 102.5 TCID50\/mL for vaccine dose on day 5 post-incubation at 40 \u00b0C with a titre loss below 1 log10 per mL. Preliminary immunogenicity test results showed that the PPR ThT vaccine meeting this criterion could be used in the field without maintaining a cold chain for up to 3 weeks, offering a practical solution for vaccination in remote areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17091151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T11:50:31Z","timestamp":1755863431000},"page":"1151","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Peste des Petits Ruminants Vaccine: Criteria for Assessing Its Thermotolerance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3240-7097","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles S.","family":"Bodjo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8162-903X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hassen Belay","family":"Gelaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7412-6011","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zione D.","family":"Luhanga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yebechaye Degefa","family":"Tessema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7387-9915","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-De-Dieu","family":"Baziki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0481-2041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cisse R. Moustapha","family":"Boukary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gelagay Ayelet","family":"Melesse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ethel","family":"Chitsungo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nick","family":"Nwankpa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC), Debre Zeit P.O. Box 1746, Ethiopia"},{"name":"World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), Sub-Regional Representation for Eastern Africa, Nairobi P.O. Box 19687, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7471-6648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon","family":"Kihu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), Sub-Regional Representation for Eastern Africa, Nairobi P.O. Box 19687, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felix","family":"Njeumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8253-9461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Satya","family":"Parida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adama","family":"Diallo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Hahngasse 24-26\/02 07, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2601.181998","article-title":"Outbreak of Peste des Petits Ruminants among Critically Endangered Mongolian Saiga and Other Wild Ungulates, Mongolia, 2016\u20132017","volume":"26","author":"Pruvot","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. 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