{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T04:16:13Z","timestamp":1785816973656,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global efforts to eradicate smallpox\u2014an Orthopoxvirus infection\u2014began in the mid-20th century, with the last naturally occurring case reported in 1977. This was achieved through global solidarity efforts that expanded the smallpox eradication vaccination program. Approximately 50 years following the cessation of mass smallpox vaccination and in the absence of access to a sustainable boosting program, the population immunologically na\u00efve to Orthopoxviruses has increased significantly. With increasing global movements and travels, we argue that the emergence of two back-to-back yet distinct mpox epidemics in the 21st century is a sign of humanity\u2019s lost herd immunity to Orthopoxviruses. This needs concerted efforts to restore.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17091257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T09:32:32Z","timestamp":1758187952000},"page":"1257","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Mpox Epidemics: A Call to Restore Humanity\u2019s Lost Herd Immunity to Orthopoxviruses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Misaki","family":"Wayengera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology & Molecular Biology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7072, Uganda"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Consortium for Epidemics Research, Kampala P.O. Box 189784, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6593-8727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henry","family":"Kyobe-Bosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Consortium for Epidemics Research, Kampala P.O. Box 189784, Uganda"},{"name":"Incident Management Team, Ministry of Health, Kampala P.O. Box 7272, Uganda"},{"name":"Uganda Peoples Defense Forces, Kampala P.O. Box 3798, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7154-2964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Winters","family":"Muttamba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Consortium for Epidemics Research, Kampala P.O. Box 189784, Uganda"},{"name":"Makerere University Lung Institute, Kampala P.O. Box 7749, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olushayo Oluseun","family":"Olu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville P.O. Box 06, Republic of Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdou Salam","family":"Gueye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville P.O. Box 06, Republic of Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicaise","family":"Ndembi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Vaccine Institute, Kigali P.O. Box 3413, Rwanda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neema","family":"Kamara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Addis Ababa P.O. Box 3243, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9008-7730","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Morenike Oluwatoyin","family":"Folayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Child Dental Health, Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220005, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce","family":"Kirenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Consortium for Epidemics Research, Kampala P.O. Box 189784, Uganda"},{"name":"Makerere University Lung Institute, Kampala P.O. Box 7749, Uganda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sitong","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qingyu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chikwe","family":"Ihekweazu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville P.O. Box 06, Republic of Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hopkins, D.R. (1983). The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History, with a New Introduction, University of Chicago Press. 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