{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:05:21Z","timestamp":1759190721812,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006108","name":"National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UG3TR003597"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UG3TR003597"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006108","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite numerous research efforts and several effective vaccines and therapies developed against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), drug repurposing remains an attractive alternative approach for treatment of SARS-CoV-2 variants and other viral infections that may emerge in the future. Cellular polyamines support viral propagation and tumor growth. Here we tested the antiviral activity of two polyamine metabolism-targeting drugs, an irreversible inhibitor of polyamine biosynthesis, \u03b1-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), and a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), Sulindac, which have been previously evaluated for colon cancer chemoprevention. The drugs were tested as single agents and in combination in the human Calu-3 lung adenocarcinoma and Caco-2 colon adenocarcinoma cell lines and the K18-hACE2 transgenic mouse model of severe COVID-19. In the infected human cell lines, the DFMO\/Sulindac combination significantly suppressed SARS-CoV-2 N1 Nucleocapsid mRNA by interacting synergistically when cells were pretreated with drugs and additively when treatment was applied to the infected cells. The Sulindac alone and DFMO\/Sulindac combination treatments also suppressed the expression of the viral Spike protein and the host angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). In K18-hACE2 mice, the antiviral activity of DFMO and Sulindac as single agents and in combination was tested as prophylaxis (drug supplementation started 7 days before infection) or as treatment (drug supplementation started 24 h post-infection) at the doses equivalent to patient chemoprevention trials (835 ppm DFMO and 167 ppm Sulindac). The drugs\u2019 antiviral activity in vivo was evaluated by measuring the clinical (survival rates and clinical scores), viral (viral load and virus infectivity), and biochemical (plasma polyamine, Sulindac, and Sulindac metabolite levels) endpoints. Prophylaxis with DFMO and Sulindac as single agents significantly increased survival rates in the young male mice (p = 0.01 and p = 0.027, respectively), and the combination was effective in the aged male mice (p = 0.042). Young female mice benefited the most from the prophylaxis with Sulindac alone (p = 0.001) and the DFMO\/Sulindac combination (p = 0.018), while aged female mice did not benefit significantly from any intervention. Treatment of SARS-CoV-2-infected animals with DFMO or\/and Sulindac did not significantly improve their survival rates. Overall, our studies demonstrated that DFMO and Sulindac administration as the prophylaxis regimen provided strong protection against the lethal outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infection and that male mice benefited more from the polyamine-targeted antiviral treatment than female mice. Our findings underscore the importance of evaluation of the antiviral activity of the drugs in the context of sex and age.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17101306","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]],"date-time":"2025-09-29T08:00:32Z","timestamp":1759132832000},"page":"1306","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Preclinical Evaluation of the Efficacy of \u03b1-Difluoromethylornithine and Sulindac Against SARS-CoV-2 Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8096-1340","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalia A.","family":"Ignatenko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7744-799X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hien T.","family":"Trinh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Valley Fever Center for Excellence, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1570-8103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"April M.","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Animal Care, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eugene W.","family":"Gerner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Bime","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, College of Medicine-Phoenix, The University of Arizona, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chiu-Hsieh","family":"Hsu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5890-0501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David G.","family":"Besselsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Animal Care, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02156-9","article-title":"Comorbidities, multimorbidity and COVID-19","volume":"29","author":"Russell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. 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