{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:05:25Z","timestamp":1759190725823,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,28]],"date-time":"2025-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759017600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Early Career Scheme","award":["24107017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24107017"]}]},{"name":"General Research Fund","award":["14103119"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["14103119"]}]},{"name":"CUHK Research Committee Direct Grants","award":["2017.61","2019.073"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017.61","2019.073"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: While rhinoviruses (RVs) typically cause mild respiratory infections, their persistence during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, particularly in Hong Kong\u2019s strict zero-coronavirus disease 2019 policy, revealed unexpected epidemiological patterns. Two distinct RV surges emerged despite stringent public health measures, suggesting unique transmission advantages among circulating strains. We hypothesised that RV persistence during pandemic restrictions reflected strain-specific adaptations in respiratory tract replication efficiency and\/or immune evasion. Methods: We analysed RV genotypes and conducted blinded clinical severity assessment for 96 paediatric hospitalisations during 2020\u20132021 outbreaks, compared with 180 age- and sex-matched control subjects from the corresponding weeks in pre-pandemic years (2018\u20132019). RV isolates from 2020 to 2021 outbreaks were characterised for their replication competence and transcriptomic responses in primary human nasal epithelial cell (HNEC) and environmental stability assays, using RV-A16 and RV-A1B as controls. Result: Minor group genotypes RV-A47 and RV-A49 were overrepresented during these two outbreaks. RV-A49 exhibited comparable replication efficiency to RV-A16 but induced significantly stronger transcriptomic responses, notably enhanced TNF and IL-1 signalling, in HNECs, alongside robust replication competence. Our data also suggests the association of RV-A49 with tachypnoea in 2021, particularly in younger males, though limited by a small sample size and single-centre design. Conclusion: The predominance of RV-A49 in hospitalised children during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic potentially driven by its replication competence in HNECs and its capacity to enhanced inflammatory responses. The result is hypothesis-generating, warranting further studies with historical strains and broader populations to confirm strain-specific severity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17101316","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]],"date-time":"2025-09-29T08:00:32Z","timestamp":1759132832000},"page":"1316","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Monopoly of Minor Group Rhinovirus Infections in Hospitalised Children in Hong Kong During the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2650-922X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason Chun Sang","family":"Pun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Rm 807, Li Ka Shing Medical Sciences Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7843-1740","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kin Pong","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Rm 807, Li Ka Shing Medical Sciences Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shaojun","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Rm 807, Li Ka Shing Medical Sciences Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ben Kam San","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Rm 807, Li Ka Shing Medical Sciences Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tony Chun Hei","family":"Lei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Rm 807, Li Ka Shing Medical Sciences Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lucky Lu Yi","family":"Tsoi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1853-5348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph Gar Shun","family":"Tsun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Rm 807, Li Ka Shing Medical Sciences Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8249-4478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnes Sze Yin","family":"Leung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6360-4608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul Kay Sheung","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SH Ho Research Centre for Infectious Diseases Faculty of Medicine, Rm 207, 2\/F, S.H. Ho Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, JC School of Public Health Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6485-0926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renee Wan Yi","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 6\/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Hong Kong Hub of Obstetric and Paediatric Excellence, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 8\/F Research Office, Tower A, Hong Kong Children\u2019s Hospital, 1 Shing Cheong Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Paediatric Respiratory Research, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Rm 807, Li Ka Shing Medical Sciences Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"SH Ho Research Centre for Infectious Diseases Faculty of Medicine, Rm 207, 2\/F, S.H. Ho Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, JC School of Public Health Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Morgenstern, C., Kelly, J., Lowe, R., Group, C.C.-W., and Jit, M. (2021). The impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions on SARS-CoV-2 transmission across 130 countries and territories. 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