{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T23:46:45Z","timestamp":1789429605175,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent studies suggest that immune response to pathogens may vary depending on changes in hormone levels. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the key components of the innate immune system and play a crucial role in HIV infection. Given the significant genetic diversity of HIV-1, this study examined the effect of female sex hormones on the several TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBLs) isolated from different female donors and infected with different variants of HIV-1 subtypes A6 and B. Thus, high doses of hormones upregulated the TLR2 and TLR9 expression in PBLs infected only with v1.A6, which also correlated with an increased viral load: by 3.8 times (p = 0.0033) when cells were treated with estradiol and by 4.4 times (p = 0.006) when treated with progesterone. Hormones did not modulate TLRs expression in the cells infected with subtype B, with the exception of one donor. In PBLs from this donor infected with the v1.B variant, hormones upregulated TLRs expression, which also correlated with the increased viral load (1.3-fold increase (p = 0.0036)). Hence, it was shown that gonadal steroids can play an important role in HIV-1 replication and immune response to a pathogen. Moreover, it was shown that different isolates of the same subtype may have distinct biological properties. The detected diversity in the TLRs expression in infected PBLs from different donors indicates that host genetics may also play an important role in HIV susceptibility.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17111512","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T12:33:04Z","timestamp":1763469184000},"page":"1512","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Gonadocorticoids Have Different Effects on the Expression of Toll-like Receptors When Infected with Various HIV-1 Subtypes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0857-9358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Nosik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantin","family":"Ryzhov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1551-718X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Berezhnaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizaveta","family":"Bystritskaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olga","family":"Lobach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irina","family":"Kiseleva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0921-3629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizaveta","family":"Kostyuchenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119048 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5323-2377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Kuzina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Virology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119048 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4334-1473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ekaterina","family":"Meremianina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7896-2379","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitry","family":"Kireev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, 111123 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oxana","family":"Svitich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I.I. Mechnikov Institute of Vaccine and Sera, 105064 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Department of Immunology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119048 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, September 17). Global HIV & AIDS Statistics\u2014Fact Sheet|UNAIDS. Available online: https:\/\/www.unaids.org\/en\/resources\/fact-sheet."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e324","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(17)30086-3","article-title":"Improved Life Expectancy of People Living with HIV: Who Is Left Behind?","volume":"4","author":"Katz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e295","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(23)00028-0","article-title":"Life Expectancy after 2015 of Adults with HIV on Long-Term Antiretroviral Therapy in Europe and North America: A Collaborative Analysis of Cohort Studies","volume":"10","author":"Trickey","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7316456","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/7316456","article-title":"HIV-Related Immune Activation and Inflammation: Current Understanding and Strategies","volume":"2021","author":"Lv","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/path.2276","article-title":"Immune Activation and Inflammation in HIV-1 Infection: Causes and Consequences","volume":"214","author":"Appay","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Streeck, H., Maestri, A., Habermann, D., Crowell, T.A., Esber, A.L., Son, G., Eller, L.A., Eller, M.A., Parikh, A.P., and Horn, P.A. (2022). Dissecting Drivers of Immune Activation in Chronic HIV-1 Infection. EBioMedicine, 83.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.104182"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozman, M., Zidovec-Lepej, S., Jambrosic, K., Babi\u0107, M., and Drmi\u0107 Hofman, I. (2023). Role of TLRs in HIV-1 Infection and Potential of TLR Agonists in HIV-1 Vaccine Development and Treatment Strategies. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12010092"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2024.03.004","article-title":"Decoding Toll-like Receptors: Recent Insights and Perspectives in Innate Immunity","volume":"57","author":"Kawai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/rai2.12167","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor Expression during Inflammatory Processes in Human Diseases","volume":"5","author":"Dhakad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, H., Gazy, N., and Venketaraman, V. (2020). A Role of Intracellular Toll-Like Receptors (3, 7, and 9) in Response to Mycobacterium Tuberculosis and Co-Infection with HIV. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21176148"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Browne, E.P. (2020). The Role of Toll-Like Receptors in Retroviral Infection. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8111787"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Kolay, S.R., Pandey, A.K., Kumar, S., Saxena, P., Kumari, A., and Shachi, K. (2024). Role of Toll-Like Receptors (Tlrs) in HIV Disease Progression. Recent Trends in Diabetes and Cancer Research and Its Management, Selfypage Developers Pvt Ltd."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-019-0465-y","article-title":"Defective Viral Genomes Are Key Drivers of the Virus\u2013Host Interaction","volume":"4","author":"Vignuzzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01929-7","article-title":"Sex Difference in Human Diseases: Mechanistic Insights and Clinical Implications","volume":"9","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moran, J.A., Turner, S.R., and Marsden, M.D. (2022). Contribution of Sex Differences to HIV Immunology, Pathogenesis, and Cure Approaches. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.905773"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fathi, A., Addo, M.M., and Dahlke, C. (2020). Sex Differences in Immunity: Implications for the Development of Novel Vaccines Against Emerging Pathogens. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.601170"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S86","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu175","article-title":"Sex-Based Differences in HIV Type 1 Pathogenesis","volume":"209","author":"Addo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Regitz-Zagrosek, V. (2012). Sex Differences in Prophylaxis and Therapeutic Treatments for Viral Diseases. Sex and Gender Differences in Pharmacology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-30726-3"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa298","article-title":"Impact of Biological Sex on Immune Activation and Frequency of the Latent HIV Reservoir During Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"222","author":"Falcinelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-018-0383-2","article-title":"Sex Differences in HIV Infection","volume":"15","author":"Scully","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klein, S.L., and Roberts, C.W. (2015). Sex Differences in the Immune Response. Sex and Gender Differences in Infection and Treatments for Infectious Diseases, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-16438-0"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-015-0791-9","article-title":"Sex Differences in Immune Responses to Infectious Diseases","volume":"43","author":"Fischer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000237","article-title":"Sex Differences in HIV-1-Mediated Immunopathology","volume":"11","author":"Ziegler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3819","article-title":"The Role of Sex Hormones in Immune Protection of the Female Reproductive Tract","volume":"15","author":"Wira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2017-00103","article-title":"Hormonal Contraception and HIV-1 Acquisition: Biological Mechanisms","volume":"39","author":"Hapgood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-021-00546-1","article-title":"HIV Pathogenesis in the Human Female Reproductive Tract","volume":"18","author":"Connors","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.47056\/0365-9615-2025-179-4-480-484","article-title":"Impact of Female Sex Hormones on the Expression of CCR5\/CCR8 Co-Receptor Genes and Virus Replication in HIV-1 Infection","volume":"179","author":"Nosik","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0378(01)00125-5","article-title":"Oral Contraceptive Use Induces Upregulation of the CCR5 Chemokine Receptor on CD4+ T Cells in the Cervical Epithelium of Healthy Women","volume":"54","author":"Prakash","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv233","article-title":"CCR5 Expression Levels in HIV-Uninfected Women Receiving Hormonal Contraception","volume":"212","author":"Sciaranghella","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maritz, M.F., Ray, R.M., Bick, A.J., Tomasicchio, M., Woodland, J.G., Govender, Y., Avenant, C., and Hapgood, J.P. (2018). Medroxyprogesterone Acetate, Unlike Norethisterone, Increases HIV-1 Replication in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells and an Indicator Cell Line, via Mechanisms Involving the Glucocorticoid Receptor, Increased CD4\/CD8 Ratios and CCR5 Levels. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0196043"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000000681","article-title":"Medroxyprogesterone Acetate Increases HIV-1 Infection of Unstimulated Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in Vitro","volume":"29","author":"Sampah","year":"2015","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2012.02.001","article-title":"Effects of Progesterone on the Content of CCR5 and CXCR4 Coreceptors in PBMCs of Seropositive and Exposed but Uninfected Mexican Women to HIV-1","volume":"132","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nosik, M., Berezhnya, E., Bystritskaya, E., Kiseleva, I., Lobach, O., Kireev, D., and Svitich, O. (2023). Female Sex Hormones Upregulate the Replication Activity of HIV-1 Sub-Subtype A6 and CRF02_AG but Not HIV-1 Subtype B. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12070880"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1177\/1933719108325510","article-title":"The Effect of Progesterone Levels and Pregnancy on HIV-1 Coreceptor Expression","volume":"16","author":"Sheffield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S48","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-4004(03)00134-6","article-title":"The Chemokine Connection: Hormonal and Embryonic Regulation at the Human Maternal-Embryonic Interface-A Review","volume":"24","author":"Dominguez","year":"2003","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2013.2","article-title":"Productive HIV-1 Infection of Human Cervical Tissue Ex Vivo Is Associated with the Secretory Phase of the Menstrual Cycle","volume":"6","author":"Saba","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1086\/605412","article-title":"HIV Type 1 Infection in Women: Increased Transcription of HIV Type 1 in Ectocervical Tissue Explants","volume":"200","author":"Asin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Monis, C.N., and Tetrokalashvili, M. (2025). Proliferative and Follicular Phases of the Menstrual Cycle. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2005.07.017","article-title":"Estrogen Stimulates Transcription of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1)","volume":"6","author":"Katagiri","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.4VMR0415-160R","article-title":"Interplay between HIV-1 and Toll-like Receptors in Human Myeloid Cells: Friend or Foe in HIV-1 Pathogenesis?","volume":"99","author":"Donninelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2011.0297","article-title":"HIV Type 1 Infection Up-Regulates TLR2 and TLR4 Expression and Function in Vivo and in Vitro","volume":"28","author":"Stevenson","year":"2012","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1086\/421780","article-title":"Increased Expression of Toll-like Receptor 2 on Monocytes in HIV Infection: Possible Roles in Inflammation and Viral Replication","volume":"39","author":"Heggelund","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01402-16","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor 2 Ligation Enhances HIV-1 Replication in Activated CCR6+ CD4+ T Cells by Increasing Virus Entry and Establishing a More Permissive Environment to Infection","volume":"91","author":"Bolduc","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5159","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.10.5159","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR9 Signaling Results in HIV-Long Terminal Repeat Trans-Activation and HIV Replication in HIV-1 Transgenic Mouse Spleen Cells: Implications of Simultaneous Activation of TLRs on HIV Replication","volume":"170","author":"Equils","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2007.0033","article-title":"Failure of TLR4-Driven NF-Kappa B Activation to Stimulate Virus Replication in Models of HIV Type 1 Activation","volume":"23","author":"Nordone","year":"2007","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000002437","article-title":"Brief Report: Toll-like Receptor 9-1635A\/G Polymorphism Is Associated With HIV-1 Rebound After Four Weeks of Interruption of Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"85","author":"Vallejo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508967","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/508967","article-title":"Interplay between HIV-1 and Host Genetic Variation: A Snapshot into Its Impact on AIDS and Therapy Response","volume":"2012","author":"Sampathkumar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Virol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2008.0219","article-title":"Appreciating HIV Type 1 Diversity: Subtype Differences in Env","volume":"25","author":"Lynch","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ssemwanga, D., Nsubuga, R.N., Mayanja, B.N., Lyagoba, F., Magambo, B., Yirrell, D., Van der Paal, L., Grosskurth, H., and Kaleebu, P. (2013). Effect of HIV-1 Subtypes on Disease Progression in Rural Uganda: A Prospective Clinical Cohort Study. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071768"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2016.10.018","article-title":"Primate Immunodeficiency Virus Classification and Nomenclature: Review","volume":"46","author":"Foley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santoro, M.M., and Perno, C.F. (2013). HIV-1 Genetic Variability and Clinical Implications. ISRN Microbiol., 2013.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/481314"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3740","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.8.3740-3751.2000","article-title":"Functional Differences between the Long Terminal Repeat Transcriptional Promoters of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Subtypes A through G","volume":"74","author":"Jeeninga","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"40","article-title":"Variability of VPU Protein in HIV-1 Sub-Subtype A6 in Patients with Different Stages of HIV Infection","volume":"16","author":"Antonova","year":"2024","journal-title":"HIV Infect. Immunosuppr. Disord."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"41","article-title":"A study of the HIV-1 regulatory genes using the polymerase chain reaction","volume":"60","author":"Ryzhov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Probl. Virol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-10-100","article-title":"Ability of HIV-1 Nef to Downregulate CD4 and HLA Class I Differs among Viral Subtypes","volume":"10","author":"Mann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.36233\/0507-4088-83","article-title":"Analysis of Tat protein characteristics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 sub-subtype A6 (Retroviridae: Orthoretrovirinae: Lentivirus: Human immunodeficiency virus-1)","volume":"66","author":"Kuznetsova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Probl. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.36233\/0507-4088-2019-64-6-281-290","article-title":"Analysis of HIV-1 (Human immunodeficiency virus-1, Lentivirus, Orthoretrovirinae, Retroviridae) Nef protein polymorphism of variants circulating in the former USSR countries","volume":"64","author":"Gromov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Probl. Virol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devadas, K., Biswas, S., Haleyurgirisetty, M., Wood, O., Ragupathy, V., Lee, S., and Hewlett, I. (2016). Analysis of Host Gene Expression Profile in HIV-1 and HIV-2 Infected T-Cells. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147421"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tough, R.H., and McLaren, P.J. (2019). Interaction of the Host and Viral Genome and Their Influence on HIV Disease. Front. Genet., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2018.00720"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1038\/s41576-021-00378-0","article-title":"HIV-1 and Human Genetic Variation","volume":"22","author":"McLaren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14658","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1514867112","article-title":"Polymorphisms of Large Effect Explain the Majority of the Host Genetic Contribution to Variation of HIV-1 Virus Load","volume":"112","author":"McLaren","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP1253","article-title":"Host Genetics Influences on HIV Type-1 Disease","volume":"14","author":"Fellay","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12771","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12771","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor Polymorphism in Host Immune Response to Infectious Diseases: A Review","volume":"90","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.12578","article-title":"Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of Toll-like Receptors and Susceptibility to Infectious Diseases","volume":"180","author":"Skevaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2431","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3283629117","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor Variants Are Associated with Infant HIV-1 Acquisition and Peak Plasma HIV-1 RNA Level","volume":"27","author":"Bigham","year":"2013","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit807","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor Polymorphism Associations with HIV-1 Outcomes among Sub-Saharan Africans","volume":"209","author":"Mackelprang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3282f4de35","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor Expression and Responsiveness Are Increased in Viraemic HIV-1 Infection","volume":"22","author":"Lester","year":"2008","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2009.09.006","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor and Chemokine Receptor Expression in HIV-Infected T Lymphocyte Subsets","volume":"88","author":"Cruse","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e32834f3167","article-title":"Differential Regulation of Toll-like Receptor Pathways in Acute and Chronic HIV-1 Infection","volume":"26","author":"Chang","year":"2012","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2387","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328330b489","article-title":"Polymorphisms in Toll-like Receptor 4 and Toll-like Receptor 9 Influence Viral Load in a Seroincident Cohort of HIV-1-Infected Individuals","volume":"23","author":"Pine","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-8-49","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor 9 Polymorphisms Influence Mother-to-Child Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1","volume":"8","author":"Ricci","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1111\/iji.12676","article-title":"Genetic polymorphisms of TLR1, TLR2, TLR3 and TLR4 in patients with recurrent or severe infections","volume":"51","author":"Kainulainen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunogenet."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3051","DOI":"10.1002\/jgm.3051","article-title":"Discordance in TLR2 (\u2212196 to \u2212174) Polymorphism Effect on HIV Infection Risk","volume":"20","author":"Royo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Gene Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2971","DOI":"10.1002\/jgm.2971","article-title":"Susceptibility to HIV-1 Infection Is Influenced by Toll like Receptor-2 (\u2212196 to \u2212174) Polymorphism in a North Indian Population","volume":"19","author":"Vidyant","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Gene Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y.-C., and Jeong, B.-H. (2020). Strong Association of the Rs4986790 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) of the Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) Gene with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: A Meta-Analysis. Genes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes12010036"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1080\/09674845.2018.1559486","article-title":"A Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism in TLR4 Is Linked with the Risk of HIV-1 Infection","volume":"76","author":"Vidyant","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e318184fb41","article-title":"Influence of the Toll-like Receptor 9 1635A\/G Polymorphism on the CD4 Count, HIV Viral Load, and Clinical Progression","volume":"49","author":"Vallejo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2007.08.008","article-title":"Toll-like Receptors, Cytokines and HIV-1","volume":"84","author":"Sanders","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kayesh, M.E.H., Kohara, M., and Tsukiyama-Kohara, K. (2023). Toll-like Receptor Response to Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 or Co-Infection with Hepatitis B or C Virus: An Overview. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24119624"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/11\/1512\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T08:54:54Z","timestamp":1763542494000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/11\/1512"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["v17111512"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17111512","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]}}}