{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:02:29Z","timestamp":1792800149362,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,29]],"date-time":"2025-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764374400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Tunisian Ministry of Health and the Ministry of High Education and Scientific Research","award":["CIC2016IPT02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CIC2016IPT02"]}]},{"name":"Tunisian Ministry of Health and the Ministry of High Education and Scientific Research","award":["LR20IPT02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LR20IPT02"]}]},{"name":"the European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program","award":["883441"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["883441"]}]},{"name":"STAMINA"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen of the Flaviviridae family that poses recurring public health threats in Tunisia, where Culex pipiens is recognized as the primary vector. Identification of circulating strains in different mosquito species is essential for targeted prevention and control. Between November 2021 and October 2022, mosquitoes were collected at four high-risk sites, and human samples were obtained through the national meningitis surveillance program. Human serum, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and urine samples were tested for WNV-specific IgM and IgG antibodies using ELISA, and molecular diagnosis was performed using Real-time RT-PCR (RRT-PCR). Positive samples underwent sequencing for phylogenetic characterization. Serological investigation on human serum revealed the presence of IgM and\/or IgG antibodies reactive to WNV antigens, which may indicate exposure to WNV or related flaviviruses. RNA of WNV was detected in 21 mosquito pools (10.19%) belonging to Culex pipiens, Cx. perexiguus, Aedes caspius, and Ae. detritus, as well as in three human cases. Phylogenetic analysis of positive human and mosquito samples showed that all detected WNV strains belonged to sublineage 1a. The concurrent detection of WNV in vectors and humans confirms active circulation in Tunisia and underscores the role of Culex spp. Mosquitoes in transmission. Sustained multidisciplinary surveillance integrating entomological and clinical data is critical for early detection, guiding control measures, and preventing future outbreaks in humans and animals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v17121562","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T13:03:02Z","timestamp":1764594182000},"page":"1562","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Surveillance of West Nile Virus in Tunisia: Evidence from Human and Entomological Investigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6976-631X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Walid","family":"Barhoumi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Observatory for New and Emerging Diseases, Ministry of Health, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5722-1646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marwa","family":"Khedhiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0048-4709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youmna","family":"M\u2019Ghirbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Souha","family":"Bougatef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Observatory for New and Emerging Diseases, Ministry of Health, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Henda","family":"Touzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adel","family":"Rhim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hela","family":"Karray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Microbiology, CHU Habib Bourguiba, Sfax 3027, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdelhalim","family":"Trabelsi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Microbiology, CHU Sahloul, Sousse 4054, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3630-5255","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maha","family":"Mastouri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Microbiology, CHU Fattouma Bourguiba, Monastir 5000, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naila","family":"Hannachi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Microbiology, CHU Farhat Hached, Sousse 4000, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Bouattour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Henda","family":"Triki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3326-9861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nissaf Bouafif","family":"Ben Alaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Observatory for New and Emerging Diseases, Ministry of Health, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0452-2856","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wasfi","family":"Fares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virus, Vector and Host (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1103.040364","article-title":"West Nile Virus risk assessment and the bridge vector paradigm","volume":"11","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2013.08.013","article-title":"West Nile viral infection of equids","volume":"167","author":"Angenvoort","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chancey, C., Grinev, A., Volkova, E., and Rios, M. (2015). The global ecology and epidemiology of West Nile virus. BioMed Res. Int., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/376230"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paz, S. (2015). Climate change impacts on West Nile virus transmission in a global context. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci., 370.","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0561"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1684\/vir.2019.0787","article-title":"Progression historique du virus du Nil occidental en Europe","volume":"23","author":"Martin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virologie"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Assaid, N., Mousson, L., Moutailler, S., Arich, S., Akarid, K., Monier, M., Beck, C., Lecollinet, S., Failloux, A.-B., and Sarih, M. (2020). Evidence of Circulation of West Nile Virus in Culex pipiens Mosquitoes and Horses in Morocco. Acta Trop., 205.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105414"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2964","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01963-10","article-title":"Phylogeography of West Nile virus: From the cradle of evolution in Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and tha Americas","volume":"85","author":"May","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"467","article-title":"Further spread of West Nile virus in Italy","volume":"46","author":"Calistri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12805","article-title":"Ecological determinants of avian malaria infections: An integrative analysis at landscape, mosquito and vertebrate community levels","volume":"87","author":"Ferraguti","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2016.11.005","article-title":"Human to human transmission of arthropod-borne pathogens","volume":"22","author":"Martina","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0804.010239","article-title":"Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus","volume":"8","author":"Bunning","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4869","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10104869","article-title":"European surveillance for West Nile virus in mosquito populations","volume":"10","author":"Engler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Goodman, G., Buchanan, B., and Larson, J. (2024, February 27). West Nile Virus Bibliography, 1965\u20132002. Available online: https:\/\/agris.fao.org\/search\/en\/providers\/122535\/records\/65ddc9430f3e94b9e5c4c82c."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.2987\/8756-971X-28.4.123","article-title":"Members of the Culex pipiens complex as vectors of viruses","volume":"28","author":"Turell","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"97","article-title":"Mosquito species involved in the circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in Italy","volume":"53","author":"Mancini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0505.990505","article-title":"West Nile fever, a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe","volume":"5","author":"Halouzka","year":"1999","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V\u00e1zquez, A., Jimenez-Clavero, M., Franco, L., Donoso-Mantke, O., Sambri, V., Niedrig, M., Zeller, H., and Tenorio, A. (2011). Usutu Virus: Potential Risk of Human Disease in Europe. Eurosurveillance, 16.","DOI":"10.2807\/ese.16.31.19935-en"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calzolari, M., Bonilauri, P., Bellini, R., Albieri, A., Defilippo, F., Tamba, M., Tassinari, M., Gelati, A., Cordioli, P., and Angelini, P. (2013). Usutu Virus Persistence and West Nile Virus Inactivity in the Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy) in 2011. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0063978"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES2014.19.31.20867","article-title":"West Nile virus lineage 2 isolated from Culex modestus mosquitoes in the Czech Republic, 2013: Expansion of the European WNV endemic area to the North","volume":"19","author":"Rudolf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2007.0266","article-title":"Vector competence of some French Culex and Aedes mosquitoes for West Nile virus","volume":"8","author":"Balenghien","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2012.1288","article-title":"Arboviral surveillance of field-collected mosquitoes reveals circulation of West Nile virus lineage 1 strains in Eastern Thrace, Turkey","volume":"13","author":"Ergunay","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habarugira, G., Suen, W.W., Hobson-Peters, J., Hall, R.A., and Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H. (2020). West Nile Virus: An update on pathobiology, epidemiology, diagnostics, control and \u201cOne Health\u201d implications. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9070589"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"101","article-title":"West Nile virus: The Indian scenario","volume":"118","author":"Paramasivan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5448.2331","article-title":"Isolation of West Nile virus from mosquitoes, crows, and a Cooper\u2019s hawk in Connecticut","volume":"286","author":"Anderson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"Crossmating and morphological studies of Cx. neavei and Cx. perexiguus (Diptera: Culicidae) to elucidate their taxonomic status","volume":"22","author":"Jupp","year":"1990","journal-title":"Mosq. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"28","article-title":"West Nile virus in mosquitoes and febrile patients in a semi-arid zone, Nigeria","volume":"2","author":"Baba","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2010.0055","article-title":"Detection of Usutu virus within a West Nile virus surveillance program in Northern Italy","volume":"11","author":"Tamba","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"297","article-title":"Enqu\u00eate S\u00e9rologique En Tunisie Sur Les Arbovirus","volume":"42","author":"Nabli","year":"1970","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000081042","article-title":"Epidemic West Nile virus encephalitis in Tunisia","volume":"24","author":"Feki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2010.03.001","article-title":"Prevalence of IgG antibodies against West Nile virus in blood donors during the 2003 outbreak in Tunisia","volume":"104","author":"Riabi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12341","article-title":"West Nile Disease Epidemiology in North-West Africa: Bibliographical Review","volume":"63","author":"Benjelloun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12384","article-title":"Identification of Suitable Areas for West Nile Virus Circulation in Tunisia","volume":"64","author":"Conte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trans. Bound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2414","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13905","article-title":"Genetic characterization of West Nile Virus strains during neuroinvasives infection outbreak in Tunisia, 2018","volume":"68","author":"Fares","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Bargaoui, R. (2012). Epid\u00e9miologie de la Fi\u00e8vre West Nile. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e9 Montpellier II, Sciences et Techniques du Langueduc]."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"181","article-title":"Monitoring and current situation of meningitis and meningo-encephalitis to West Nile virus in Tunisia","volume":"6","author":"Bouatef","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tun. Rev. Infect."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12077","article-title":"Mapping the Serological Prevalence Rate of West Nile fever in Equids, Tunisia","volume":"62","author":"Bargaoui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1007\/s13149-011-0173-1","article-title":"D\u00e9tection de la circulation de virus West Nile chez les Equid\u00e9s dans le nord-ouest de la Tunisie","volume":"104","author":"Elghoul","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"225","article-title":"West Nile disease in Tunisia: An overview of 60 years","volume":"53","author":"Hammami","year":"2017","journal-title":"VeterinariaItaliana"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beji, M., Rhim, A., and Roiz DBouattour, A. (2017). Ecophysiological characterization and molecular differentiation of Culex pipiens forms (Diptera: Culicidae) in Tunisia. Parasites Vectors, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2265-7"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nebbak, A., Almeras, L., Parola, P., and Bitam, I. (2022). Mosquito Vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) and Mosquito-Borne Diseases in North Africa. Insects, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/insects13100962"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conley, A.K., Fuller, D.O., Haddad, N., Hassan, A.N., Gad, A.M., and Beier, J.C. (2014). Modeling the distribution of the West Nile and Rift Valley Fever vector Culex pipiens in arid and semi-arid regions of the Middle East and North Africa. Parasit. Vectors, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-289"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-017-0101-y","article-title":"Surveillance of arthropod-borne viruses and their vectors in the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions within the MediLabSecure Network","volume":"4","author":"Failloux","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Trop. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gdoura, M., Fares, W., Bougatef, S., Inoubli, A., Touzi, H., Hogga, N., Ben Dhifallah, I., Hannachi, N., Argoubi, A., and Kacem, S. (2022). The Value of West Nile Virus RNA Detection by Real-Time RT-PCR in Urine Samples from Patients with Neuroinvasive Forms. Arch. Microbiol., 204.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-022-02829-6"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Brunhes, J., Rhaim, A., Geoffroy, B., Angel, G., and Hervy, J.-P. (2000). Les Culicidae d\u2019Afrique M\u00e9diterran\u00e9ene, Institute for Research Development."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2731","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msr121","article-title":"MEGA 5. Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood evolutionary distance, and maximum parsimony methods","volume":"28","author":"Tamura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2013.03.005","article-title":"Explosive spread of a neuroinvasive lineage 2 West Nile virus in Central Europe, 2008\/2009","volume":"165","author":"Bakonyi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2019.01.002","article-title":"West Nile virus outbreak in the South of France: Implications for travel medicine","volume":"28","author":"Eldin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Travel. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2018.07.008","article-title":"Outbreak of West Nile Virus disease in Israel (2015): A retrospective analysis of notified cases","volume":"28","author":"Salama","year":"2019","journal-title":"Travel. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6255","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10126255","article-title":"The changing epidemiology of Kunjin virus in Australia","volume":"10","author":"Prow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tantely, M.L., Goodman, S.M., Rakotondranaivo, T., and Boyer, S. (2016). Review of West Nile virus circulation and outbreak risk in Madagascar: Entomological and ornithological perspectives. Parasite, 23.","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2016058"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12259","article-title":"First detection of co-circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in equids in the south-west of Tunisia","volume":"61","author":"Calistri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz, J., Ruiz, S., Soriguer, R., Alcaide, M., Viana, D.S., Roiz, D., V\u00e1zquez, A., and Figuerola, J. (2012). Feeding Patterns of Potential West Nile Virus Vectors in South-West Spain. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0039549"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, I., Ahmed, F., Muqaddas, H., Alberti, A., Varcasia, A., and Sedda, L. (2025). Epidemiology and surveillance of West Nile virus in the Mediterranean Basin during 2010\u20132023: A systematic review. Curr. Res. Parasitol. Vector-Borne Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crpvbd.2025.100277"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amraoui, F., Krida, G., Bouattour, A., Rhim, A., Daaboub, J., Harrat, Z., Boubidi, S.C., Tijane, M., Sarih, M., and Failloux, A.B. (2012). Culex pipiens, an experimental efficient vector of West Nile and Rift Valley fever viruses in the Maghreb region. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0036757"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1111\/mve.12107","article-title":"New evidence for the potential role of Culex pipiens mosquitoes in the transmission cycle of West Nile virus in Tunisia","volume":"29","author":"Krida","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.03.037","article-title":"West Nile Virus in Tunisia, 2014: First Isolation from Mosquitoes","volume":"159","author":"Wasfi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u2019ghirbi, Y., Mousson, L., Moutailler, S., Lecollinet, S., Amaral, R., Beck, C., Aounallah, H., Amara, M., Chebchoub, A., and Rhim, A. (2023). West Nile, Sindbis and Usutu Viruses: Evidence of Circulation in Mosquitoes and Horses in Tunisia. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12030360"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/45.5.939","article-title":"Mosquito vectors of West Nile fever in Israel","volume":"45","author":"Orshan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ergunay, K., Gunay, F., Erisoz Kasap, O., Oter, K., Gargari, S., Karaoglu, T., Tezcan, S., Cabalar, M., Yildirim, Y., and Emekdas, G. (2014). Serological, Molecular and Entomological Surveillance Demonstrates Widespread Circulation of West Nile Virus in Turkey. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003028"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benbetka, S., Hachid, A., Benallal, K., Benbetka, C., Khaldi, A., Bitam, I., and Harrat, Z. (2018). First Field Evidence Infection of Culex perexiguus by West Nile Virus in Sahara Oasis of Algeria. J. Vector Borne Dis., 55.","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-9062.256566"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41426-018-0028-y","article-title":"A four-year survey (2011\u20132014) of West Nile virus infection in humans, mosquitoes and birds, including the 2012 meningoencephalitis outbreak in Tunisia","volume":"7","author":"Monastiri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amdouni, J., Monaco, F., Portanti, O., Sghaier, S., Conte, A., Hassine, T.B., Polci, A., Valleriani, F., Di Gennaro, A., and Zoueri, M. (2019). Detection of enzootic circulation of a new strain of West Nile virus lineage 1 in sentinel chickens in the north of Tunisia. Acta Trop., 202.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2019.105223"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ouni, A., Aounallah, H., Rebai, W.K., Llorente, F., Chendoul, W., Hammami, W., Rhim, A., Jim\u00e9nez-Clavero, M.\u00c1., P\u00e9rez-Ram\u00edrez, E., and Bouattour, A. (2025). The Role of Ruminants as Sentinel Animals in the Circulation of the West Nile Virus in Tunisia. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14030267"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trv066","article-title":"A Review of West Nile and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: How Much Do Transmission Cycles Overlap?","volume":"109","author":"Nikolay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silverj, A., Mencattelli, G., Monaco, F., Iapaolo, F., Teodori, L., Leone, A., Polci, A., Curini, V., Di Domenico, M., and Secondini, B. (2024). West Nile Virus Working Group. Origin and evolution of West Nile virus lineage 1 in Italy. Epidemiol. Infect., 152.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268824001420"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez de Oya, N., Camacho, M.C., Bl\u00e1zquez, A.B., Lima-Barbero, J.F., Saiz, J.C., H\u00f6fle, U., and Escribano-Romero, E. (2018). High susceptibility of magpie (Pica pica) to experimental infection with lineage 1 and 2 West Nile virus. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006394"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Alarc\u00f3n, L.G.S.M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Mart\u00ednez, B., Moros, M.J.S., V\u00e1zquez, A., Pach\u00e9s, P.J., Villacieros, E.G., Mart\u00edn, M.B.G., Borras, J.F., Lorusso, N., and Aceitero, J.M.R. (2021). Unprecedented increase of West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease, Spain, summer 2020. Eurosurveillance, 26.","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.19.2002010"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2017.11.006","article-title":"Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Advances in Modelling Climate-Change Impacts","volume":"34","author":"Tjaden","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/12\/1562\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T13:07:39Z","timestamp":1764594459000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/17\/12\/1562"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,29]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v17121562"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v17121562","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,29]]}}}