{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T21:57:26Z","timestamp":1768859846230,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768521600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chicago Developmental Center for AIDS Research (D-CFAR), a National Institutes of Health"},{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH) funded program","award":["P30 AI 082151"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 AI 082151"]}]},{"name":"Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: To better define potential executive function difficulties in individuals living with HIV but not clinically identified as having HAND, with and without mild to moderate cocaine dependence (CD), our cross-sectional study examined executive function performance on the Stroop Color-Word Test (Stroop) and the Trail Making Test (TMT) in four groups stratified by HIV and CD status. Method: We recruited 101 participants (26 HIV+\/CD+; 18 HIV+\/CD\u2212; 30 HIV\u2212\/CD+; 27 HIV\u2212\/CD\u2212). We utilized a 2 (HIV: yes\/no) \u00d7 2 (Cocaine: yes\/no) MANCOVA while controlling for age and premorbid intelligence on the Stroop trials (i.e., color-naming, word-reading, interference), and TMT-A and TMT-B z-scores, number of errors, and the B\/A ratio. Results: HIV was associated with significantly slower performance on the Stroop Interference (p = 0.012, \u03b72 = 0.064). CD showed a trend towards slower performance on interference trials (p = 0.061, \u03b72 = 0.037) and was associated with significantly more errors on the Stroop Word-Reading (p = 0.028, \u03b72 = 0.050) and Interference trials (p = 0.046, \u03b72 = 0.041), suggestive of difficulties with inhibitory control and written language processing. There were no significant HIV \u00d7 Cocaine interactions. Conclusions: Our results suggest HIV without clinically identified cognitive impairment and CD are associated with distinct and potentially overlapping executive functioning deficits, particularly for measures of inhibitory control. Notably, CD showed trend-level slowing on Stroop Interference performance, suggesting partial overlap with HIV effects. Clarifying the specific cognitive processes impacted by HIV and CD can help guide tailored interventions to improve functional outcomes in these populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18010122","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T08:23:56Z","timestamp":1768811036000},"page":"122","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cognitive Flexibility and Inhibition Deficits in HIV and Cocaine Dependence: Evidence from Stroop and Trail Making Tests"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2359-027X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah E.","family":"Nigro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Minjie","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1699-9333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Betty Jo","family":"Salmeron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Office of the Clinical Director, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sharmin","family":"Islam-Souleimanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimaging Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eve","family":"Lauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimaging Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"},{"name":"Department of Public Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7433-6891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anthony C.","family":"Juliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8450-5871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alinda R.","family":"Lord","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Atash","family":"Sabet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6403-7035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisa H.","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Roosevelt University, Chicago, IL 60605, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"T. Celeste","family":"Napier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Audrey L.","family":"French","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, CORE Center\/Stroger Hospital of Cook County, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Howard J.","family":"Aizenstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1035-5038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yihong","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimaging Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shaolin","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/0081246316646296","article-title":"Neuropsychological profiles of adults and older adults with HIV","volume":"47","author":"Cassimjee","year":"2017","journal-title":"S. 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