{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T00:40:51Z","timestamp":1787791251771,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772064000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus with one of the widest global distributions. Since its discovery in Uganda in 1937, it has become a major zoonotic pathogen, and after its introduction into the United States in 1999, it spread rapidly across the Americas, becoming the leading cause of neuroinvasive arboviral disease. Its expansion illustrates a remarkable ecological adaptability, further intensified by climate change. In Latin America and the Caribbean, WNV circulation has been consistently documented in birds, horses, and mosquitoes; however, confirmed human cases remain disproportionately scarce compared with North America and Europe. Reports include sporadic human cases in Brazil (&gt;100 since 2014), Mexico (~13), Argentina (2006\u20132007), Puerto Rico (2007), Nicaragua, and Haiti, while animal and vector evidence extends to Guatemala, El Salvador, Belize, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Cuba, and Ecuador. This paradox likely reflects structural limitations within regional health systems, including underdiagnosis, restricted diagnostic capacity, and significant surveillance gaps, particularly in contexts where mild febrile syndromes may be misclassified as dengue, Zika, or Chikungunya. The regional risk of emergence is further amplified by climatic variability, ecological change, and intensifying human\u2013wildlife interactions. Experiences from Europe highlight the importance of early detection, transfusion safety, and integrated surveillance within a One Health framework. Strengthening preparedness in Latin America will require investments in diagnostic infrastructure, implementation of standardized seroepidemiological surveys, development of predictive models tailored to local ecological contexts, and robust intersectoral collaboration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18030281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T10:33:02Z","timestamp":1772101982000},"page":"281","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Reframing West Nile Virus in Latin America: From Enzootic Evidence to Human Risk\u2014Surveillance Gaps and One Health Actions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1178-0546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan S.","family":"Izquierdo-Condoy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170124, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janeth C.","family":"Gil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santiago de Cali, Cali 760033, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3643-1737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jhan. S.","family":"Saavedra-Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santiago de Cali, Cali 760033, Colombia"},{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Salud (GIS), Departamento de Medicina Interna, Universidad del Cauca, Popay\u00e1n 190001, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1890-4983","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H. A.","family":"Nati-Castillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Biomateriales y Biotecnolog\u00eda\u2014BEO, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santiago de Cali, Cali 760033, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan Jose","family":"Martinez Penaranda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interinstitutional Internal Medicine Group (GIMI 1), Universidad Libre, Cali 760032, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8476-5956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolina","family":"V\u00e1squez Narv\u00e1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Salud, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Cali 760031, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1503-1929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"L\u00f3pez-Cort\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research Group (CRG), Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170124, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3717-383X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marlon","family":"Arias-Intriago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology Department, SOLCA Quito, Quito 170518, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1895-7498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esteban","family":"Ortiz-Prado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170124, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habarugira, G., Suen, W.W., Hobson-Peters, J., Hall, R.A., and Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H. 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