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Once internalized, gp120 is associated with neuronal dysfunction involving convergent pathways, including excitotoxic calcium dysregulation, mitochondrial and metabolic failure, and inflammatory and senescence-associated amplification. These pathways converge on suppression of CREB and BDNF signaling, dismantling the transcriptional and neurotrophic programs required for synaptic maintenance and cognitive resilience. Extracellular vesicle-mediated dissemination and microRNA reprogramming extend gp120-associated neurobiological effects beyond sites of receptor engagement, while gut-derived metabolites, particularly quinolinic acid, lower the excitotoxic threshold through synergistic activation of NMDA receptors. Together, these mechanisms define HAND as a network disorder in which gp120 contributes to persistent neurocognitive dysfunction beyond active viral replication, identifying convergent therapeutic nodes where combination strategies targeting excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation offer the most promising path toward durable neuroprotection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18050495","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T11:40:12Z","timestamp":1777981212000},"page":"495","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From Envelope to Encephalopathy: How HIV-1 gp120 Drives Neurocognitive Decline"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4650-6552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maryline","family":"Santerre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"FELS Cancer Institute for Personalized Medicine, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3307 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jenny","family":"Shrestha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FELS Cancer Institute for Personalized Medicine, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3307 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4067-7596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles N. 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