{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T16:09:19Z","timestamp":1779206959093,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007741","name":"UoH-IoE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UoH-IoE-RC4-21-016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UoH-IoE-RC4-21-016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007741","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007741","name":"UoH-IoE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UoH-IoE-RC4-21-022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UoH-IoE-RC4-21-022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007741","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a major concern in the treatment of bacterial infections, and bacteriophage therapy has emerged as a promising alternative to antibiotics. Bacteriophages are highly specific to their bacterial hosts; hence, isolating phages indigenous to a specific region offers a significant advantage against various pathogen strains. We have isolated a cocktail of bacteriophages against pathogenic E. coli from sewage water at a primary healthcare centre. Characterisation of the isolated phages demonstrated their stability across a broad pH and temperature range, strong lytic activity, and effective biofilm degradation, with no cross-reactivity with Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Genomic analysis and phylogenetic studies indicated that the largest phage (by genome size) in the cocktail belongs to the genus Vequintavirus (myoviruses, rV5-like phages), and its genome sequence has been deposited in NCBI (Accession ID: PX741096). The phage genome was linear, with headful (PAC) packaging, encoded lysis proteins, and lacked antibiotic-resistant or major lysogeny-associated genes, collectively suggesting a lytic lifestyle. These findings emphasize the therapeutic potential of rV5-like phages and underscore the critical need to establish phage banks in India to improve disease management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18050532","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T09:33:17Z","timestamp":1777627997000},"page":"532","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Isolation and Genomic Characterization of a Lytic Bacteriophage Against Multidrug-Resistant E. coli"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Ramesh","family":"Kumpatla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, Telangana, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vinaya Kruthi","family":"Vitala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, Telangana, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5948-2337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arunasree M.","family":"Kalle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, Telangana, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3575","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.26486-0","article-title":"The Distribution and Genetic Structure of Escherichia Coli in Australian vertebrates: Host and Geographic Effects","volume":"149","author":"Gordon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2019.03.018","article-title":"Persistence of foodborne diarrheagenic Escherichia coli in the agricultural and food production environment: Implications for food safety and public health","volume":"82","author":"Aijuka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, July 07). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/e-coli."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirous, M., Hashemzadeh, M., Keshtvarz, M., Amin, M., Shams, N., Dastoorpoor, M., Shahin, M., and Koraei, D. (2020). Molecular Characterization and Antimicrobial Resistance of Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in Children from Ahvaz, Iran. Jundishapur J. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.100877"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, K.W.K., Millar, B.C., and Moore, J.E. (2023). Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR). Br. J. Biomed. Sci., 80.","DOI":"10.3389\/bjbs.2023.11387"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Motta, S.S., Cluzel, P., and Aldana, M. (2015). Adaptive Resistance in Bacteria Requires Epigenetic Inheritance, Genetic Noise, and Cost of Efflux Pumps. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0118464"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uru\u00e9n, C., Chopo-Escuin, G., Tommassen, J., Mainar-Jaime, R.C., and Arenas, J. (2020). Biofilms as Promoters of Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance and Tolerance. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10010003"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"American Society for Microbiology (2025, February 10). Available online: https:\/\/asm.org\/Articles\/2023\/March\/The-Role-of-Bacterial-Biofilms-in-Antimicrobial-Re."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.4292\/wjgpt.v8.i3.162","article-title":"Phage therapy: An Alternative to Antibiotics in the Age of multi-drug Resistance","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Islam, M.S., Fan, J., Suzauddula, M., Nime, I., and Pan, F. (2024). Isolation and Characterization of Novel Escherichia coli O157:H7 Phage SPEC13 as a Therapeutic Agent for E. coli Infections In Vitro and In Vivo. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12092036"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shamsuzzaman, M., Kim, S., and Kim, J. (2024). Bacteriophage as a novel therapeutic approach for killing multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli ST131 clone. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1455710"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Q., Le, S., Zhu, T., and Wu, N. (2023). Regulations of phage therapy across the world. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1250848"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2022.101208","article-title":"Phage banks as potential tools to rapidly and cost-effectively manage antimicrobial resistance in the developing world","volume":"53","author":"Nagel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pallavali, R.R., Degati, V.L., Lomada, D., Reddy, M.C., and Durbaka, V.R.P. (2017). Isolation and in vitro evaluation of bacteriophages against MDR-bacterial isolates from septic wound infections. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0179245"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-164-6_7","article-title":"Enumeration of Bacteriophages by Double Agar Overlay Plaque Assay","volume":"501","author":"Kropinski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2867","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-020-0346-0","article-title":"Standardized bacteriophage purification for personalized phage therapy","volume":"15","author":"Luong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15242","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51742-4","article-title":"Improved lyophilization conditions for long-term storage of bacteriophages","volume":"9","author":"Manohar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1017\/S1431927615004407","article-title":"Easier and Safer Biological Staining: High Contrast UranyLess Staining of TEM Grids using mPrep\/g Capsules","volume":"21","author":"Benmeradi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microsc. Microanal."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.15171\/apb.2018.011","article-title":"Bacteriophage Isolated from Sewage Eliminates and Prevents the Establishment of Escherichia coli Biofilm","volume":"8","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Sambrook, J., and Russell, D.W. (2001). Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2023, October 27). Babraham Bioinformatics\u2014FastQC a Quality Control Tool for High Throughput Sequence Data. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/s-andrews\/FastQC."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2114","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btu170","article-title":"Trimmomatic: A flexible trimmer for Illumina sequence data","volume":"30","author":"Bolger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1089\/cmb.2012.0021","article-title":"SPAdes: A New Genome Assembly Algorithm and Its Applications to Single-Cell Sequencing","volume":"19","author":"Bankevich","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btt086","article-title":"QUAST: Quality assessment tool for genome assemblies","volume":"29","author":"Gurevich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W443","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkad382","article-title":"PHASTEST: Faster than PHASTER, better than PHAST","volume":"51","author":"Wishart","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-020-00867-0","article-title":"VIBRANT: Automated recovery, annotation and curation of microbial viruses, and evaluation of viral community function from genomic sequences","volume":"8","author":"Kieft","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vbad101","DOI":"10.1093\/bioadv\/vbad101","article-title":"PhaBOX: A web server for identifying and characterizing phage contigs in metagenomic data","volume":"3","author":"Shang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioinform. Adv."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camacho, C., Coulouris, G., Avagyan, V., Ma, N., Papadopoulos, J., Bealer, K., and Madden, T.L. (2009). BLAST+: Architecture and applications. BMC Bioinform., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-10-421"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-020-00774-7","article-title":"CheckV assesses the quality and completeness of metagenome-assembled viral genomes","volume":"39","author":"Nayfach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8292","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-07910-5","article-title":"PhageTerm: A tool for fast and accurate determination of phage termini and packaging mechanism using next-generation sequencing data","volume":"7","author":"Garneau","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/14.10.846","article-title":"Hidden Markov models for detecting remote protein homologies","volume":"14","author":"Karplus","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5825","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msab293","article-title":"eggNOG-mapper v2: Functional Annotation, Orthology Assignments, and Domain Prediction at the Metagenomic Scale","volume":"38","author":"Cantalapiedra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2024, October 23). Virus-Host Database. Genome.jp. Available online: https:\/\/www.genome.jp\/virushostdb."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D566","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkw1004","article-title":"CARD 2017: Expansion and model-centric curation of the comprehensive antibiotic resistance database","volume":"45","author":"Jia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W246","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky425","article-title":"CRISPRCasFinder, an update of CRISRFinder, includes a portable version, enhanced performance and integrates search for Cas proteins","volume":"46","author":"Couvin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W358","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkaa351","article-title":"AcrFinder: Genome mining anti-CRISPR operons in prokaryotes and their viruses","volume":"48","author":"Yi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03617-13","article-title":"Real-time whole-genome sequencing for routine typing, surveillance, and outbreak detection of verotoxigenic Escherichia coli","volume":"52","author":"Joensen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malberg Tetzschner, A.M., Johnson, J.R., Johnston, B.D., Lund, O., and Scheutz, F. (2020). In Silico Genotyping of Escherichia coli Isolates for Extraintestinal Virulence Genes by Use of Whole-Genome Sequencing Data. J. Clin. Microbiol., 58.","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01269-20"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moraru, C., Varsani, A., and Kropinski, A.M. (2020). VIRIDIC\u2014A Novel Tool to Calculate the Intergenomic Similarities of Prokaryote-Infecting Viruses. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.05.188268"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2025, September 25). Dsmz.de. Available online: https:\/\/victor.dsmz.de."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3396","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btx440","article-title":"VICTOR: Genome-based phylogeny and classification of prokaryotic viruses","volume":"33","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meier-Kolthoff, J.P., Auch, A.F., Klenk, H.P., and G\u00f6ker, M. (2013). Genome sequence-based species delimitation with confidence intervals and improved distance functions. BMC Bioinform., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-14-60"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2798","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msv150","article-title":"FastME 2.0: A Comprehensive, Accurate, and Fast Distance-Based Phylogeny Inference Program: Table 1","volume":"32","author":"Lefort","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1086\/282802","article-title":"Estimating Phylogenetic Trees from Distance Matrices","volume":"106","author":"Farris","year":"1972","journal-title":"Am. Nat."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e96","DOI":"10.1002\/cpbi.96","article-title":"Using ggtree to Visualize Data on Tree-Like Structures","volume":"69","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f6ker, M., Garc\u00eda-Bl\u00e1zquez, G., Voglmayr, H., Teller\u00eda, M.T., and Mart\u00edn, M.P. (2009). Molecular Taxonomy of Phytopathogenic Fungi: A Case Study in Peronospora. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006319"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1944-3277-9-2","article-title":"Complete genome sequence of DSM 30083T, the type strain (U5\/41T) of Escherichia coli, and a proposal for delineating subspecies in microbial taxonomy","volume":"9","author":"Hahnke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stand. Genom. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mst010","article-title":"MAFFT Multiple Sequence Alignment Software Version 7: Improvements in Performance and Usability","volume":"30","author":"Katoh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msaa015","article-title":"IQ-TREE 2: New Models and Efficient Methods for Phylogenetic Inference in the Genomic Era","volume":"37","author":"Minh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Rambaut, A. (2025, July 15). FigTree Ed.ac.uk. Available online: http:\/\/tree.bio.ed.ac.uk\/software\/figtree\/."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2024.07.010","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: A concise update","volume":"6","author":"Ho","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2021.04.014","article-title":"Health Care\u2013Acquired Infections in Low- and Middle-Income Countries and the Role of Infection Prevention and Control","volume":"35","author":"Maki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7267","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1500107112","article-title":"Temperate and lytic bacteriophages programmed to sensitize and kill antibiotic-resistant bacteria","volume":"112","author":"Yosef","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fuaf061","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuaf061","article-title":"Phage Cocktails: State-of-the-Art Technologies and Strategies for Effective Design","volume":"50","author":"Kaneko","year":"2025","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2022.126963","article-title":"Anti-CRISPR proteins as a therapeutic agent against drug-resistant bacteria","volume":"257","author":"Vyas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, M., Song, Q., Liu, Z., Clokie, M.R.J., Sicheritz-Pont\u00e9n, T., Petersen, B., Wang, X., Zhang, Q., Xu, X., and Luo, Y. (2025). Design of Lytic Phage Cocktails Targeting Salmonella: Synergistic Effects Based on In Vitro Lysis, In Vivo Protection, and Biofilm Intervention. Viruses, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/v17101363"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2025.465890","article-title":"Scalable purification of bacteriophages preparations","volume":"1749","author":"Saavedra","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S441085","article-title":"Isolation and Phenotypic Characterization of Virulent Bacteriophages Against Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli and Its Phage-Resistant Variant from Sewage Sources","volume":"17","author":"Fikadu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lavigne, R., Darius, P., Summer, E.J., Seto, D., Mahadevan, P., Nilsson, A.S., Ackermann, H.W., and Kropinski, A.M. (2009). Classification of Myoviridae bacteriophages using protein sequence similarity. BMC Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-9-224"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3572","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.188.10.3572-3581.2006","article-title":"In Vitro Biofilm Formation of Commensal and Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains: Impact of Environmental and Genetic Factors","volume":"188","author":"Reisner","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Ma, J., Yang, P., Geng, F., Li, X., L\u00fc, J., and Wang, Y. (2024). Comparative analysis of biofilm characterization of probiotic Escherichia coli. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1365562"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez, B.C., Heckmann, E.R., Green, S.I., Clark, J.R., Kaplan, H.B., Ramig, R.F., Muldrew, K.L., Hines-Munson, C., Skelton, F., and Trautner, B.W. (2022). Development of Phage Cocktails to Treat E. coli Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection and Associated Biofilms. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.953136"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayorga-Ramos, A., Carrera-Pacheco, S.E., Barba-Ostria, C., and Guam\u00e1n, L.P. (2024). Bacteriophage-mediated approaches for biofilm control. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1428637"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-010-9834-8","article-title":"Efficacy of a Broad Host Range Lytic Bacteriophage Against E. coli Adhered to Urothelium","volume":"62","author":"Sillankorva","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crouzet, M., Le Senechal, C., Br\u00f6zel, V.S., Costaglioli, P., Barthe, C., Bonneu, M., Garbay, B., and Vilain, S. (2014). Exploring early steps in biofilm formation: Set-up of an experimental system for molecular studies. BMC Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-014-0253-z"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4160","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900044106","article-title":"The phage major tail protein structure reveals a common evolution for long-tailed phages and the type VI bacterial secretion system","volume":"106","author":"Pell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mangieri, N., Foschino, R., and Picozzi, C. (2021). Application of Bacteriophages on Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) Biofilm. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10111423"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01135-15","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.01135-15","article-title":"Complete Genome Sequence of Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Myophage Murica","volume":"3","author":"Wilder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-565-1_7","article-title":"Determining DNA Packaging Strategy by Analysis of the Termini of the Chromosomes in Tailed-Bacteriophage Virions","volume":"502","author":"Casjens","year":"2009","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, C., Yu, X., Guo, W., Guo, C., Guo, X., Li, Q., and Zhu, Y. (2022). Bacteriophage-Mediated Control of Biofilm: A Promising New Dawn for the Future. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.825828"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2004.12.042","article-title":"Control of Bacteriophage T4 Tail Lysozyme Activity During the Infection Process","volume":"346","author":"Kanamaru","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.aivir.2018.09.003","article-title":"Phage Lysis: Multiple Genes for Multiple Barriers","volume":"103","author":"Cahill","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.67.1.86-156.2003","article-title":"Bacteriophage T4 Genome","volume":"67","author":"Miller","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.16.4.974-981.1975","article-title":"Analysis of expression of the rII gene function of bacteriophage T4","volume":"16","author":"Heere","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/s44259-025-00117-z","article-title":"Re-evaluating what makes a phage unsuitable for therapy","volume":"3","author":"Cook","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maffei, E., Shaidullina, A., Burkolter, M., Heyer, Y., Estermann, F., Druelle, V., Sauer, P., Willi, L., Michaelis, S., and Hilbi, H. (2021). Systematic exploration of Escherichia coli phage\u2013host interactions with the BASEL phage collection. PLoS Biol., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3001424"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0059224","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00592-24","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of Septuagintavirus; a novel clade of Escherichia coli phages within the subfamily Vequintavirinae","volume":"12","author":"Buttimer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/5\/532\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T15:19:04Z","timestamp":1779203944000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/5\/532"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v18050532"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v18050532","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]}}}