{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T20:12:15Z","timestamp":1787688735481,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000098","name":"NIH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U24OD035523"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U24OD035523"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000098","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["U24OD035523"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U24OD035523"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/044zkrt47","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"NIH: Vanderbilt-coordinated Virus Characterization Center","award":["U54AG089326"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U54AG089326"]}]},{"award":["U54AG089326"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U54AG089326"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/044zkrt47","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Viral comorbidities elicit complex host responses by activating redox-sensitive signaling pathways, prominently those regulated by NADPH oxidase (Nox) enzymes. Nox are critical components of host defense, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) that modulate key cellular signaling cascades. Under normal physiological conditions, Nox activity is tightly controlled; however, viral infections frequently disrupt this regulation, leading to aberrant upregulation of specific Nox isoforms. Elevated expression of individual Nox enzymes has been observed in infections such as influenza A and hepatitis C virus, while simultaneous activation of multiple Nox isoforms occurs in HIV and SARS-CoV infections. Similar patterns of dual or multi-isoform Nox activation are also reported in complex disease states, including diabetes, thrombosis, and fibrosis. MicroRNAs play a crucial role in this process by selectively regulating Nox isoform expression during viral infection, thereby remodeling the host redox environment. Nox-derived ROS influence multiple downstream signaling pathways, including SMAD, MAPK, CXCR-mediated signaling, and the JNK\/ERK axis, promoting inflammation and fibrosis that worsen viral disease outcomes. Additionally, several FDA-approved drugs, investigational agents, and microRNA-based therapeutics show promise in modulating Nox activity. Therefore, this article substantiates how viral infections reprogram host transcriptomic and redox signaling networks, contributing to viral pathogenesis and offering potential therapeutic intervention strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18050565","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T16:07:26Z","timestamp":1779206846000},"page":"565","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Viral Comorbidities Remodel Host Transcriptome and Redox Signaling in an NADPH Oxidase Isoform-Specific Manner"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Rashmi K.","family":"Ambasta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC), Nashville, TN 37067, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2496-9724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suman R.","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC), Nashville, TN 37067, USA"},{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC), Nashville, TN 37067, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1097","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00480.2019","article-title":"NADPH oxidase-mediated endothelial injury in HIV- and opioid-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension","volume":"318","author":"Agarwal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"121","article-title":"[TGF-\u03b21 activates NOX4\/ROS pathway to promote the invasion and migration of cervical cancer cells]","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Xi Bao Yu Fen Zi Mian Yi Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8341937","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8341937","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus NS5A Protein Triggers Oxidative Stress by Inducing NADPH Oxidases 1 and 4 and Cytochrome P450 2E1","volume":"2016","author":"Smirnova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-025-02139-1","article-title":"ALR inhibits HBV replication and autophagosome formation by ameliorating HBV-induced ROS production in hepatic cells","volume":"61","author":"Mishra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hendricks, K.S., To, E.E., Luong, R., Liong, F., Erlich, J.R., Shah, A.M., Liong, S., O\u2019Leary, J.J., Brooks, D.A., and Vlahos, R. (2022). Endothelial NOX4 Oxidase Negatively Regulates Inflammation and Improves Morbidity During Influenza A Virus Lung Infection in Mice. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.883448"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-018-0953-7","article-title":"NADPH oxidase 4 regulates anoikis resistance of gastric cancer cells through the generation of reactive oxygen species and the induction of EGFR","volume":"9","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-024-02435-6","article-title":"High-risk human papillomavirus infection and cervical cytopathology: Relationship with cervical nitric oxide levels","volume":"21","author":"Shaker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6039","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-023-08504-3","article-title":"Synergistic effect of elevated glucose levels with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein induced NOX-dependent ROS production in endothelial cells","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2014.04.020","article-title":"Oxidative stress and hepatic Nox proteins in chronic hepatitis C and hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"72","author":"Choi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000712","article-title":"The protective effect and diagnostic performance of NOX-5 in Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever patients","volume":"67","author":"Bakir","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001337","DOI":"10.1136\/openhrt-2020-001337","article-title":"Thrombotic complications of COVID-19 may reflect an upregulation of endothelial tissue factor expression that is contingent on activation of endosomal NADPH oxidase","volume":"7","author":"DiNicolantonio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Heart"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vph.2021.106879","article-title":"Crosstalk of TLR4, vascular NADPH oxidase, and COVID-19 in diabetes: What are the potential implications?","volume":"139","author":"Nunes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahn, W., Burnett, F.N., Pandey, A., Ghoshal, P., Singla, B., Simon, A.B., Derella, C.C., AAddo, S., Harris, R.A., and Lucas, R. (2024). SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Stimulates Macropinocytosis in Murine and Human Macrophages via PKC-NADPH Oxidase Signaling. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13020175"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2320388121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2320388121","article-title":"Structural basis for EROS binding to human phagocyte NADPH oxidase NOX2","volume":"121","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbc.2024.107130","article-title":"The NADPH oxidase 2 subunit p47phox binds to the WAVE regulatory complex and p22phox in a mutually exclusive manner","volume":"300","author":"Kuihon","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Treuer, A.V., Fa\u00fandez, M., Ebensperger, R., Hovelmeyer, E., Vergara-Jaque, A., Perera-Sardi\u00f1a, Y., Gutierrez, M., Fuentealba, R., and Gonz\u00e1lez, D.R. (2023). New NADPH Oxidase 2 Inhibitors Display Potent Activity against Oxidative Stress by Targeting p22phox-p47phox Interactions. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12071441"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paclet, M.H., Laurans, S., and Dupr\u00e9-Crochet, S. (2022). Regulation of Neutrophil NADPH Oxidase, NOX2: A Crucial Effector in Neutrophil Phenotype and Function. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.945749"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2019.05.006","article-title":"The phagocyte NOX2 NADPH oxidase in microbial killing and cell signaling","volume":"60","author":"Nauseef","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-9424-3_21","article-title":"Phosphorylation of gp91phox\/NOX2 in Human Neutrophils","volume":"1982","author":"Raad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-9424-3_1","article-title":"Intersecting Stories of the Phagocyte NADPH Oxidase and Chronic Granulomatous Disease","volume":"1982","author":"Nauseef","year":"2019","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fink, B., Hunter, J.M., Pietrzkowski, Z., Fink, R., Brunssen, C., Morawietz, H., and Nemzer, B. (2025). A Plant-Based Dietary Supplement Exhibits Significant Effects on Markers of Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Immune Response in Subjects Recovering from Respiratory Viral Infection: A Randomized, Double-Blind Clinical Study Using Vitamin C as a Positive Control. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26115209"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.2174\/2589977515666230706114812","article-title":"NOX-2 Inhibitors may be Potential Drug Candidates for the Management of COVID-19 Complications","volume":"16","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.124.070538","article-title":"CD4+ T Cells Expressing Viral Proteins Induce HIV-Associated Endothelial Dysfunction and Hypertension Through Interleukin 1\u03b1-Mediated Increases in Endothelial NADPH Oxidase 1","volume":"151","author":"Kress","year":"2025","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, L.K., Babcock, I.W., Minamide, L.S., Shaw, A.E., Bamburg, J.R., and Kuhn, T.B. (2021). Direct interaction of HIV gp120 with neuronal CXCR4 and CCR5 receptors induces cofilin-actin rod pathology via a cellular prion protein- and NOX-dependent mechanism. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248309"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgv126","article-title":"HPV16 E6 and E7 proteins induce a chronic oxidative stress response via NOX2 that causes genomic instability and increased susceptibility to DNA damage in head and neck cancer cells","volume":"36","author":"Marullo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2020.1718164","article-title":"APX-115A, a pan-NADPH Oxidase Inhibitor, Induces Caspase-dependent Cell Death by Suppressing NOX4-ROS Signaling in EBV-infected Retinal Epithelial Cells","volume":"45","author":"Hong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2015.3726","article-title":"Diphenylene iodonium interferes with cell cycle progression and induces apoptosis by modulating NAD(P)H oxidase\/ROS\/cell cycle regulatory pathways in Burkitt\u2019s lymphoma cells","volume":"33","author":"Ding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2002.1709","article-title":"Down-regulation of spontaneous Epstein-Barr virus reactivation in the P3HR-1 cell line by L-arginine","volume":"304","author":"Agawa","year":"2002","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-024-03078-8","article-title":"Inhibition of NADPH oxidase 2 enhances resistance to viral neuroinflammation by facilitating M1-polarization of macrophages at the extraneural tissues","volume":"21","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflam."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pecchillo Cimmino, T., Ammendola, R., Cattaneo, F., and Esposito, G. (2023). NOX Dependent ROS Generation and Cell Metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032086"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15558","article-title":"Ca2+-Dependent NOX5 (NADPH Oxidase 5) Exaggerates Cardiac Hypertrophy Through Reactive Oxygen Species Production","volume":"76","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfy161","article-title":"Potential benefits and harms of NADPH oxidase type 4 in the kidneys and cardiovascular system","volume":"34","author":"Rajaram","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varga, Z.V., Pipicz, M., Ba\u00e1n, J.A., Baranyai, T., Koncsos, G., Leszek, P., Ku\u015bmierczyk, M., S\u00e1nchez-Cabo, F., Garc\u00eda-Pav\u00eda, P., and Brenner, G.J. (2017). Alternative Splicing of NOX4 in the Failing Human Heart. Front. Physiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2017.00935"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15565","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002178107","article-title":"NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4) is a major source of oxidative stress in the failing heart","volume":"107","author":"Kuroda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0101422","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.01014-22","article-title":"Diphenyleneiodonium Treatment Inhibits the Development of Severe Herpes Stromal Keratitis Lesions","volume":"96","author":"Rana","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R435","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00154.2022","article-title":"Inhibition of IL-6 signaling prevents serum-induced umbilical cord artery dysfunction from patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"324","author":"Almeida","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kato, Y., Nishiyama, K., Man Lee, J., Ibuki, Y., Imai, Y., Noda, T., Kamiya, N., Kusakabe, T., Kanda, Y., and Nishida, M. (2022). TRPC3-Nox2 Protein Complex Formation Increases the Risk of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein-Induced Cardiomyocyte Dysfunction through ACE2 Upregulation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010102"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damiano, S., Sozio, C., La Rosa, G., and Santillo, M. (2020). NOX-Dependent Signaling Dysregulation in Severe COVID-19: Clues to Effective Treatments. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.608435"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, L., Fu, X., Yuan, C., Jiang, X., and Zhang, G. (2018). Induction of Oxidative DNA Damage in Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Infected Bovine Kidney Cells (MDBK Cells) and Human Tumor Cells (A549 Cells and U2OS Cells). Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10080393"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2012.5129","article-title":"NADPH oxidase 1, a novel molecular source of ROS in hippocampal neuronal death in vascular dementia","volume":"21","author":"Choi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, J., Hu, C., Zhu, Y., Sun, R., Fang, Y., Fan, Y., and Xu, F. (2015). LMP1 Increases Expression of NADPH Oxidase (NOX) and Its Regulatory Subunit p22 in NP69 Nasopharyngeal Cells and Makes Them Sensitive to a Treatment by a NOX Inhibitor. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134896"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2024.103396","article-title":"NoxO1 regulates EGFR signaling by its interaction with Erbin","volume":"77","author":"Hebchen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hebchen, D.M., Spaeth, M., M\u00fcller, N., and Schr\u00f6der, K. (2024). NoxO1 Determines the Level of ROS Formation by the Nox1-Centered NADPH Oxidase. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13091113"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benssouina, F.Z., Parat, F., Villard, C., Leloup, L., Garrouste, F., Sabatier, J.M., Ferhat, L., and Kovacic, H. (2023). Overexpression of a Novel Noxo1 Mutant Increases Ros Production and Noxo1 Relocalisation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24054663"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F335","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00236.2022","article-title":"Reactivity of renal and mesenteric resistance vessels to angiotensin II is mediated by NOXA1\/NOX1 and superoxide signaling","volume":"324","author":"Stevenson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2021.0047","article-title":"Renal NOXA1\/NOX1 Signaling Regulates Epithelial Sodium Channel and Sodium Retention in Angiotensin II-induced Hypertension","volume":"36","author":"Vendrov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2021.0135","article-title":"Nox, Nox, Are You There? The Role of NADPH Oxidases in the Peripheral Nervous System","volume":"37","author":"Eid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rousset, F., Nacher-Soler, G., Kokje, V.B.C., Sgroi, S., Coelho, M., Krause, K.H., and Senn, P. (2022). NADPH Oxidase 3 Deficiency Protects From Noise-Induced Sensorineural Hearing Loss. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.832314"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nocella, C., D\u2019Amico, A., Cammisotto, V., Bartimoccia, S., Castellani, V., Loffredo, L., Marini, L., Ferrara, G., Testa, M., and Motta, G. (2023). Structure, Activation, and Regulation of NOX2: At the Crossroad between the Innate Immunity and Oxidative Stress-Mediated Pathologies. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12020429"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00034.2023","article-title":"NADPH oxidases: Redox regulation of cell homeostasis and disease","volume":"105","author":"Lopes","year":"2025","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herb, M. (2024). NADPH Oxidase 3: Beyond the Inner Ear. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13020219"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-9424-3_2","article-title":"Mammalian NADPH Oxidases","volume":"1982","author":"Buvelot","year":"2019","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.3892\/br.2024.1917","article-title":"Exploring the potential regulation of DUOX in thyroid hormone-autophagy signaling via IGF-1 in the skeletal muscle (Review)","volume":"22","author":"Then","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomed. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2021.102159","article-title":"The role of NADPH oxidases in infectious and inflammatory diseases","volume":"48","author":"Taylor","year":"2021","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.4103\/japtr.japtr_67_22","article-title":"Prediction of the mechanism of action of catechin as superoxide anion antioxidants and natural antivirals for COVID-19 infection with in silico study","volume":"13","author":"Zainuddin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Adv. Pharm. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12934","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01059-09","article-title":"Hepatitis C virus (HCV) proteins induce NADPH oxidase 4 expression in a transforming growth factor beta-dependent manner: A new contributor to HCV-induced oxidative stress","volume":"83","author":"Boudreau","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2023.12.014","article-title":"Impact of amino acid substitutions in hepatitis C virus core region on the severe oxidative stress","volume":"212","author":"Chida","year":"2024","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.23671","article-title":"Hepatocyte NAD(P)H oxidases as an endogenous source of reactive oxygen species during hepatitis C virus infection","volume":"52","author":"Seronello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-023-01345-4","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 primed platelets-derived microRNAs enhance NETs formation by extracellular vesicle transmission and TLR7\/8 activation","volume":"21","author":"Liao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1177\/0960327118781902","article-title":"Maternal miRNA-146a G\/C rs2910164 variation, HIV\/AIDS and nitrogen oxide pollution exposure collectively affects foetal growth","volume":"38","author":"Naidoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cho, S.Y., Kim, S., Son, M.J., Kim, G., Singh, P., Kim, H.N., Choi, H.G., Yoo, H.J., Ko, Y.B., and Lee, B.S. (2019). Dual oxidase 1 and NADPH oxidase 2 exert favorable effects in cervical cancer patients by activating immune response. BMC Cancer, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-019-6202-3"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"450","article-title":"Regulatory role of CDX2 and NOX4 expression associated with recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4843","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.16469","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis virus infection causes reactive oxygen species-mediated skeletal muscle damage","volume":"60","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2023.106575","article-title":"Duox mediated ROS production inhibited WSSV replication in Eriocheir sinensis under short-term nitrite stress","volume":"260","author":"Jia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-015-0892-z","article-title":"Hypothiocyanite produced by human and rat respiratory epithelial cells inactivates extracellular H1N2 influenza A virus","volume":"65","author":"Gingerich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20140321","article-title":"Lung epithelial NOX\/DUOX and respiratory virus infections","volume":"128","author":"Grandvaux","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, B., Hou, J., Liu, J., He, J., Gao, Y., Li, G., Ma, T., Lv, X., Dong, L., and Yang, W. (2025). Hydrogen decreases susceptibility to AngII-induced atrial fibrillation and atrial fibrosis via the NOX4\/ROS\/NLRP3 and TGF-\u03b21\/Smad2\/3 signaling pathways. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0310852"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schiffer, T.A., Carvalho, L.R.R.A., Guimaraes, D., Boeder, A., Wikstr\u00f6m, P., and Carlstr\u00f6m, M. (2024). Specific NOX4 Inhibition Preserves Mitochondrial Function and Dampens Kidney Dysfunction Following Ischemia-Reperfusion-Induced Kidney Injury. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4663648"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2024.155879","article-title":"Exploring the inflammation-related mechanisms of Lingguizhugan decoction on right ventricular remodeling secondary to pulmonary arterial hypertension based on integrated strategy using UPLC-HRMS, systems biology approach, and experimental validation","volume":"132","author":"Lv","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sofiullah, S.S.M., Murugan, D.D., Muid, S.A., Seng, W.Y., Kadir, S.Z.S.A., Abas, R., Ridzuan, N.R.A., Zamakshshari, N.H., and Woon, C.K. (2023). Natural Bioactive Compounds Targeting NADPH Oxidase Pathway in Cardiovascular Diseases. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28031047"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7097","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb46070423","article-title":"MicroRNAs as Regulators of Radiation-Induced Oxidative Stress","volume":"46","author":"Kura","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2415","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2020.11325","article-title":"Low expression of miR5323p contributes to cerebral ischemia\/reperfusion oxidative stress injury by directly targeting NOX2","volume":"22","author":"Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lew, W.Y., Bayna, E., Dalle Molle, E., Contu, R., Condorelli, G., and Tang, T. (2014). Myocardial fibrosis induced by exposure to subclinical lipopolysaccharide is associated with decreased miR-29c and enhanced NOX2 expression in mice. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0107556"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.2174\/1871527321666220324115848","article-title":"The Protective Effect of Vitexin Compound B-1 on Rat Cerebral I\/R Injury through a Mechanism Involving Modulation of miR-92b\/NOX4 Pathway","volume":"22","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1136\/neurintsurg-2016-012463","article-title":"NADPH oxidase inhibitor regulates microRNAs with improved outcome after mechanical reperfusion","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. NeuroInterv.l Surg."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2023.110507","article-title":"Gentisic acid protects against diabetic nephropathy in Nicotinamide-Streptozotocin administered male mice by attenuating oxidative stress and inflammation: The role of miR-200a\/Keap1\/Nrf2 pathway, renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and NF-\u043aB","volume":"380","author":"Ahangarpour","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7675","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.16613","article-title":"Overexpression of miR-19a and miR-20a in iPS-MSCs preserves renal function of chronic kidney disease with acute ischaemia-reperfusion injury in rat","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2019.103281","article-title":"Microcystin exposure worsens nonalcoholic fatty liver disease associated ectopic glomerular toxicity via NOX-2-MIR21 axis","volume":"73","author":"Sarkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2018.04.002","article-title":"High circulatory leptin mediated NOX-2-peroxynitrite-miR21 axis activate mesangial cells and promotes renal inflammatory pathology in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"17","author":"Alhasson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2023.102851","article-title":"NOX family NADPH oxidases in mammals: Evolutionary conservation and isoform-defining sequences","volume":"66","author":"Nazari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4308","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.72.5.4308-4319.1998","article-title":"gag, vif, and nef genes contribute to the homologous viral interference induced by a nonproducer human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) variant: Identification of novel HIV-1-inhibiting viral protein mutants","volume":"72","author":"Olivetta","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-025-02987-1","article-title":"Modulation of transferrin receptor by HIV-2","volume":"22","author":"Kiarie","year":"2025","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01993-17","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01993-17","article-title":"Superinfection Exclusion between Two High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Types during a Coinfection","volume":"92","author":"Biryukov","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"85","article-title":"Epstein-Barr Virus Hijacks Redox Signaling via Glutathione Peroxidase 4 to Sustain Latency and Drive Gastric Cancer Progression","volume":"44","author":"Shi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/5\/565\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T16:13:03Z","timestamp":1779207183000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/5\/565"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v18050565"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v18050565","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]]}}}