{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:16:00Z","timestamp":1785417360065,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780444800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010042","name":"Special Fund for Agro-scientific Research in the Public Interest","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["201303035"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201303035"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010042","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2017YFC1200500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFC1200500"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["32260897"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32260897"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["32260897"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32260897"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The taxonomic species Palyam virus (PALV) comprises a group of widely distributed, Culicoides-borne arboviruses linked to bovine reproductive disorders, yet its genetic diversity and seroprevalence in China have not been fully characterized. To address this gap, we obtained 29 PALV isolates from sentinel cattle in southern China, performed whole-genome sequencing on 15 representative strains, and conducted a nationwide serosurvey of 4660 cattle using a newly developed c-ELISA. These genomic data were integrated with global datasets for comprehensive phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses. By establishing a global VP2-based framework, the Chinese PALV isolates were assigned to the Chuzan, Bunyip Creek, and D\u2019Aguilar genogroups. In the global context, Chinese PALV strains exhibited the closest genetic affinity with strains from Japan, while phylogeographic reconstruction suggests at least two independent introductions from Japan during the 1980s and 1990s. Our survey revealed a high overall seroprevalence of 46.5% (95% CI: 44.7\u201347.5%) in cattle, demonstrating a pronounced latitudinal gradient with a sharp ecological threshold at 32.5\u00b0 N. The virus is hyperendemic in humid southern China, with seroprevalence ranging from 33.0% to 88.8%, but attenuated in northern regions with seroprevalence less than 8.0%. These findings redefine PALV as a widespread \u201csilent threat\u201d in the East Asian arbovirus ecosystem, highlighting the need for coordinated transboundary surveillance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18060638","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T06:17:31Z","timestamp":1780467451000},"page":"638","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genomic Epidemiology and National Seroprevalence Reveal the Widespread Distribution of Palyam Viruses in China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Heng","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming 650214, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Virus Diseases Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6728-4277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Virus Diseases Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1654-171X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhanhong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Virus Diseases Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Virus Diseases Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Defang","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Virus Diseases Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5631-9972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianbo","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Virus Diseases Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0467-9113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming 650214, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huachun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Virus Diseases Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2014.1701","article-title":"A Review of Knowledge Gaps and Tools for Orbivirus Research","volume":"15","author":"Drolet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres\/2010007","article-title":"Re-emergence of bluetongue, African horse sickness, and other orbivirus diseases","volume":"41","author":"Maclachlan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.34.2.2362","article-title":"Zoonotic and emerging orbivirus infections","volume":"34","author":"Attoui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebersohn, K., Coetzee, P., Snyman, L.P., Swanepoel, R., and Venter, E.H. (2019). Phylogenetic Characterization of the Palyam Serogroup Orbiviruses. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11050446"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1988.49.12.2026","article-title":"Serologic evidence for the etiologic role of Chuzan virus in an epizootic of congenital abnormalities with hydranencephaly-cerebellar hypoplasia syndrome of calves in Japan","volume":"49","author":"Goto","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"221","article-title":"Structural studies on orbivirus proteins and particles","volume":"309","author":"Stuart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shirafuji, H., Kishida, N., Murota, K., Suda, Y., and Yanase, T. (2024). Genetic Characterization of Palyam Serogroup Viruses Isolated in Japan from 1984 to 2018 and Development of a Real-Time RT-PCR Assay for Broad Detection of Palyam Serogroup Viruses and Specific Detection of Chuzan (Kasba) and D\u2019Aguilar Viruses. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13070550"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yanase, T., Murota, K., and Hayama, Y. (2020). Endemic and Emerging Arboviruses in Domestic Ruminants in East Asia. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00168"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-015-2734-2","article-title":"Complete genome sequence of a Chuzan virus strain isolated for the first time in mainland China","volume":"161","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2371","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2412.171414","article-title":"Chuzan Virus in Yaks, Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-015-1282-x","article-title":"Isolation, complete genome sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis of the first Chuzan virus in China","volume":"52","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"761","article-title":"Isolation and sequence analysis of Palyam serogroup viruses from Southern China, 2012\u20132016","volume":"49","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Zootech. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.11.033","article-title":"Bluetongue virus serotype 26: Infection kinetics and pathogenesis in Dorset Poll sheep","volume":"157","author":"Batten","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13927","article-title":"Novel putative bluetongue virus serotype 29 isolated from inapparently infected goat in Xinjiang of China","volume":"68","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2007.02.016","article-title":"Rapid cDNA synthesis and sequencing techniques for the genetic study of bluetongue and other dsRNA viruses","volume":"143","author":"Maan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-2067-0_11","article-title":"Trimming and Validation of Illumina Short Reads Using Trimmomatic, Trinity Assembly, and Assessment of RNA-Seq Data","volume":"2443","author":"Sewe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13040-014-0034-0","article-title":"Performance of genetic programming optimised Bowtie2 on genome comparison and analytic testing (GCAT) benchmarks","volume":"8","author":"Langdon","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioData Min."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4126","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btaa490","article-title":"Metaviral SPAdes: Assembly of viruses from metagenomic data","volume":"36","author":"Antipov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"giab008","DOI":"10.1093\/gigascience\/giab008","article-title":"Twelve years of SAMtools and BCFtools","volume":"10","author":"Danecek","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gigascience"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mst010","article-title":"MAFFT multiple sequence alignment software version 7: Improvements in performance and usability","volume":"30","author":"Katoh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msaa015","article-title":"IQ-TREE 2: New Models and Efficient Methods for Phylogenetic Inference in the Genomic Era","volume":"37","author":"Minh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"veaa087","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/veaa087","article-title":"RDP5: A computer program for analyzing recombination in, and removing signals of recombination from, nucleotide sequence datasets","volume":"7","author":"Martin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virus Evol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vew007","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/vew007","article-title":"Exploring the temporal structure of heterochronous sequences using TempEst (formerly Path-O-Gen)","volume":"2","author":"Rambaut","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virus Evol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vey016","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/vey016","article-title":"Bayesian phylogenetic and phylodynamic data integration using BEAST 1.10","volume":"4","author":"Suchard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virus Evol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drummond, A.J., Ho, S.Y., Phillips, M.J., and Rambaut, A. (2006). Relaxed phylogenetics and dating with confidence. PLoS Biol., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0040088"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2157","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mss084","article-title":"Improving the accuracy of demographic and molecular clock model comparison while accommodating phylogenetic uncertainty","volume":"29","author":"Baele","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lemey, P., Rambaut, A., Drummond, A.J., and Suchard, M.A. (2009). Bayesian phylogeography finds its roots. PLoS Comput. Biol., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000520"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, Q.L., Wang, Q., Yang, X.Y., Li, D.L., Zhao, B., Ge, G.Y., Zong, Y., Li, J.M., Leng, X., and Shi, K. (2020). Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of the Bluetongue Virus in Cattle in China from 1988 to 2019: A Comprehensive Literature Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.550381"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-017-0774-9","article-title":"Isolation of Tibet orbivirus from Culicoides and associated infections in livestock in Yunnan, China","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2022027","article-title":"Diversity and seasonal abundance of Culicoides (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae) in Shizong County, Yunnan Province, China","volume":"29","author":"Duan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21677","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78673-9","article-title":"Global emergence and evolutionary dynamics of bluetongue virus","volume":"10","author":"Alkhamis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ries, C., Sharav, T., Tseren-Ochir, E.O., Beer, M., and Hoffmann, B. (2020). Putative Novel Serotypes \u201833\u2019 and \u201835\u2019 in Clinically Healthy Small Ruminants in Mongolia Expand the Group of Atypical BTV. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13010042"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3081","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2612.191301","article-title":"Novel Serotype of Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus, China","volume":"26","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11487","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00889-10","article-title":"Intragenic recombination as a mechanism of genetic diversity in bluetongue virus","volume":"84","author":"He","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ngoveni, H.G., van Schalkwyk, A., and Koekemoer, J.J.O. (2019). Evidence of Intragenic Recombination in African Horse Sickness Virus. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11070654"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arroyo Muhr, L.S., Lagheden, C., Hassan, S.S., Kleppe, S.N., Hultin, E., and Dillner, J. (2020). De novo sequence assembly requires bioinformatic checking of chimeric sequences. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0237455"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nomikou, K., Hughes, J., Wash, R., Kellam, P., Breard, E., Zientara, S., Palmarini, M., Biek, R., and Mertens, P. (2015). Widespread Reassortment Shapes the Evolution and Epidemiology of Bluetongue Virus following European Invasion. PLoS Pathog., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005056"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.015651-0","article-title":"Detection of a novel reassortant epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) in the USA containing RNA segments derived from both exotic (EHDV-6) and endemic (EHDV-2) serotypes","volume":"91","author":"Allison","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sghaier, S., Sailleau, C., Marcacci, M., Thabet, S., Curini, V., Ben Hassine, T., Teodori, L., Portanti, O., Hammami, S., and Jurisic, L. (2022). Epizootic Haemorrhagic Disease Virus Serotype 8 in Tunisia, 2021. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202211.0195.v1"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arbi, M., Harigua-Souiai, E., Hanachi, M., Larbi, I., Chaouch, M., Rjaibi, D., Diouani, M.F., Benkahla, A., and Souiai, O. (2025). Emergence and evolution of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus in the Mediterranean region: Spatio-temporal dynamics and epidemiological insights. Front. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1569244"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virs.2022.06.005","article-title":"A serologic investigation of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus in China between 2014 and 2019","volume":"37","author":"Duan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2021.105170","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors of bluetongue virus infection in sheep and goats in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"161","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms1939.50.405","article-title":"Epidemiological survey of an epidemic of congenital abnormalities with hydranencephaly-cerebellar hypoplasia syndrome of calves occurring in 1985\/86 and seroepidemiological investigations on Chuzan virus, a putative causal agent of the disease, in Japan","volume":"50","author":"Goto","year":"1988","journal-title":"Nihon Juigaku Zasshi"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/6\/638\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T04:23:33Z","timestamp":1780633413000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/6\/638"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["v18060638"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v18060638","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]]}}}