{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T17:08:31Z","timestamp":1785431311636,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001503","name":"Indian Council of Agricultural Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["49\/CI\/IPP\/PME\/Ins-solo\/20-21\/05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["49\/CI\/IPP\/PME\/Ins-solo\/20-21\/05"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001503","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["49\/CI\/IPP\/PME\/Ins-solo\/20-21\/05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["49\/CI\/IPP\/PME\/Ins-solo\/20-21\/05"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04fw54a43","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is a globally significant disease that adversely affects cattle health and productivity, including in India. It is caused by three bovine pestiviruses: bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (BVDV-1), BVDV-2, and HoBi-like pestivirus (HoBiPeV), which belong to the Pestivirus genus within the Flaviviridae family. Despite the prevalence of all three pestivirus species in India, no commercial vaccine based on the local circulating strain is currently available. This study evaluates the safety, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy of an inactivated whole-virus BVD vaccine, based on an Indian BVDV-1 strain. The virus was propagated in MDBK cells, inactivated using 3 mM binary ethylenimine (BEI) for 24 h at 37 \u00b0C, and formulated with Montanide ISA 61 VG (SEPPIC) in a 50:50 water-in-oil emulsion. Vaccine safety was confirmed in both guinea pigs and bovine calves, with no adverse effects observed. Immunogenicity testing in guinea pigs (n = 6) showed neutralizing antibody titres up to 9 log2 (1\/512). In calves aged 9\u201312 months (n = 3), the vaccine elicited strong humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, with mean neutralizing antibody titres against the homologous BVDV-1 strain reaching 14 log2 (1\/16,384). Neutralizing antibody levels remained detectable for up to 12 months post vaccination with sustained mean titres of 7 log2 (1\/128). Notably, titres reported to be adequate for fetal protection (\u22659 log2 or \u22651\/512 were maintained for five months following vaccination. Challenge studies demonstrated complete protection of vaccinated calves against homologous BVDV-1 acute infection. In addition, the vaccine conferred partial cross-protection against heterologous strains including BVDV-2 and HoBiPeV. In a field trial involving 125 cattle, 74% of animals developed protective neutralizing titres (\u22657 log2 or \u22651\/128), while 48% achieved titres reported to be adequate for fetal protection (9 log2 or 1\/512). Furthermore, 92% of vaccinated cattle maintained neutralizing antibody titres of at least 6 log2 (\u22651\/64) for up to six months post-booster vaccination. A strong positive correlation was observed between guinea pig and bovine antibody responses (R2 = 0.6809; p &lt; 0.0001), indicating the potential of guinea pigs as a predictive model. Vaccine stability was confirmed for up to 8 months when stored at 4 \u00b0C, as demonstrated by the immunogenicity in guinea pigs. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the locally developed inactivated BVDV-1 vaccine is safe, highly immunogenic, and capable of providing protective immunity against BVDV-1 infection, supporting its potential use in BVD control programs in India.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18060653","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T00:43:54Z","timestamp":1780965834000},"page":"653","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Evaluation of Safety, Immunogenicity and Efficacy of an Inactivated Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV-1) Vaccine Candidate in Cattle"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7325-5686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Semmannan","family":"Kalaiyarasu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Anand Nagar, Bhopal 462022, Madhya Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7231-0583","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Niranjan","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Anand Nagar, Bhopal 462022, Madhya Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5462-2804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shashi Bhusan","family":"Sudhakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Anand Nagar, Bhopal 462022, Madhya Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vijendra Pal","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Anand Nagar, Bhopal 462022, Madhya Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aniket","family":"Sanyal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Anand Nagar, Bhopal 462022, Madhya Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2429","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-022-05516-5","article-title":"Recent changes to virus taxonomy ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2022)","volume":"167","author":"Walker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. 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