{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:13:51Z","timestamp":1787030031420,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011091","name":"Federal Service for Public Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RF21\/6347"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RF21\/6347"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011091","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["RF21\/6347"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RF21\/6347"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01rwa8h06","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The 2019 coronavirus disease pandemic (COVID-19) showed how genetic mutations can alter coronavirus characteristics. However, the evolution of livestock coronaviruses remains understudied. We analyzed 15 bovine coronavirus (BCoV), three porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) and 18 porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV) isolates, mainly from Belgian livestock collected between 2020 and 2023. Spike gene phylogenetic analysis showed nucleotide substitution rates comparable between BCoV and PRCV, while PHEV appeared slower. Unlike severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), synonymous substitutions were preferred, limiting amino acid variation across decades in the animal coronaviruses. Virus neutralization assays with swine antisera indicated minimal antigenic change in PHEV and PRCV. Recent BCoV isolates showed antigenic divergence from the classical Mebus vaccine strain. The impact of this divergence on vaccine efficacy may warrant further research. Our findings underscore the need for periodic surveillance, as changes in surface proteins may affect pathogenicity, tissue tropism, host range and vaccine efficacy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18070705","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T05:52:11Z","timestamp":1782453131000},"page":"705","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Genetic and Antigenic Characterization of Bovine and Porcine Respiratory Coronaviruses Circulating in Western Europe, 2020\u20132023"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Ruth","family":"Mumo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Parys","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Service of Viral Diseases, Sciensano, Engelandstraat 642, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sieglinde","family":"Coppens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PathoSense BV, Poortakkerstraat 41A, 9051 Gent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5367-9756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nick","family":"Vereecke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"},{"name":"PathoSense BV, Poortakkerstraat 41A, 9051 Gent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sebastiaan","family":"Theuns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PathoSense BV, Poortakkerstraat 41A, 9051 Gent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bart","family":"Pardon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Calf Health Research Group, Clinic for Ruminants, Department of Internal Medicine, Reproduction and Population Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1042-6676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristien","family":"Van Reeth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"001843","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001843","article-title":"ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Coronaviridae 2023","volume":"104","author":"Woo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. 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