{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:04:11Z","timestamp":1790809451337,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Armed Forces Health Surveillance Division, Global Emerging Infections Surveillance (GEIS) Branch","award":["P0185_21_N3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P0185_21_N3"]}]},{"name":"Armed Forces Health Surveillance Division, Global Emerging Infections Surveillance (GEIS) Branch","award":["P0183_22_N3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P0183_22_N3"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Avian influenza viruses continue to pose significant zoonotic and pandemic threat globally, with low-pathogenic avian influenza A(H9N2) being of particular concern due to sustained circulation in poultry, adaptability, and repeated human spillover. This study investigated the detection and genetic characterization of influenza viruses at the animal\u2013human interface in Ghana in 2022, using a nationwide cross-sectional One Health approach. Samples were collected from poultry, pigs, the environment, and animal handlers across backyard farms, commercial farms, and live bird markets. Laboratory testing was conducted using real-time RT-PCR, while statistical associations were assessed using chi-square and logistic regression. Whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis were performed on selected positive samples. Out of 4056 samples, 1516 were poultry samples. A(H9N2) was detected exclusively in poultry, with a prevalence of 5.67%. The Northern belt recorded the highest prevalence. Live bird markets had significantly higher odds of A(H9N2) detection compared with commercial farms (odds ratio: 15.37, p &lt; 0.0001), while backyard farms had lower odds. Environmental samples were negative. Among animal handlers, one case each of A(H3N2) and SARS-CoV-2 was identified. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that Ghanaian strains belonged to clade G1 and possessed mammalian-adaptive markers. These findings highlight ongoing circulation in poultry and the need for sustained One Health surveillance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18070725","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T03:06:34Z","timestamp":1782875194000},"page":"725","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Genetic and Epidemiological Evidence of Avian Influenza A(H9N2) Detection Among Poultry in Ghana, 2022"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Stephen Ofori","family":"Nyarko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4017-6519","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorreta","family":"Kwasah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"},{"name":"West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens (WACCBIP), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 54, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linda","family":"Boatemaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Ghana Medical School, Korle Bu, Accra P. O. Box LG 25, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1038-0014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nana Afia Asante","family":"Ntim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0065-5926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mildred","family":"Adusei-Poku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Ghana Medical School, Korle Bu, Accra P. O. Box LG 25, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gifty Mawuli","family":"Sarpong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vanessa","family":"Magnusen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"},{"name":"West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens (WACCBIP), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 54, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3686-5849","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer","family":"Wutsika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Ghana Medical School, Korle Bu, Accra P. O. Box LG 25, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9114-6281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel","family":"Ago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-7174-4248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esinam Aku Apefa","family":"Amenuvor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Ghana Medical School, Korle Bu, Accra P. O. Box 4236, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juliet","family":"Wordui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Ghana Medical School, Korle Bu, Accra P. O. Box LG 25, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ama Nyansema","family":"Sekyi-Yorke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-7156-9492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cecilia","family":"Takyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberta","family":"Tackie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Innocent Kwao","family":"Doku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph Asuam","family":"Nyarko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph Ahia","family":"Quarcoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grace Arezie","family":"Kyiire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7092-7237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theophilus","family":"Odoom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Services Directorate, Accra P. O. Box M 161, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fenteng","family":"Danso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Services Directorate, Accra P. O. Box M 161, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Asiedu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Division, 37 Military Hospital, Accra P. O. Box BC 254, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel Lartei","family":"Mingle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Division, 37 Military Hospital, Accra P. O. Box BC 254, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naiki","family":"Attram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Naval Medical Research Unit-EURAFCENT, Ghana Detachment, 24 Fourth Circular Road, Cantonment, Accra P. O. Box GP 2288, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shirley Cameron","family":"Nimo-Paintsil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Naval Medical Research Unit-EURAFCENT, Ghana Detachment, 24 Fourth Circular Road, Cantonment, Accra P. O. Box GP 2288, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanders","family":"Terrel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Naval Medical Research Unit-EURAFCENT, Ghana Detachment, 24 Fourth Circular Road, Cantonment, Accra P. O. Box GP 2288, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hugo Miranda","family":"Quijada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Naval Medical Research Unit-EURAFCENT, Ghana Detachment, 24 Fourth Circular Road, Cantonment, Accra P. O. Box GP 2288, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William Kwabena","family":"Ampofo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4077-3190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivy Asantewaa","family":"Asante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra P. O. Box LG 581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2023.102638","article-title":"A comprehensive review of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1: An imminent threat at doorstep","volume":"55","author":"Charostad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00433-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00433-18","article-title":"Avian influenza viruses in wild birds: Virus evolution in a multihost ecosystem","volume":"92","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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