{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T16:05:09Z","timestamp":1790006709049,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":187,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open Access funds of Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/046ak2485","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Retroviruses induce immunosuppression in their infected hosts. This phenomenon is well described for the immunodeficiency viruses, with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) representing the best-studied example, but it also occurs in other retroviral infections. Immunosuppressive properties were first characterized in murine leukemia viruses (MuLV). Additional well-studied examples include feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and koala retrovirus (KoRV). Investigations into the mechanisms underlying retrovirus-induced immunosuppression revealed that not only inactivated viral particles but also their purified transmembrane (TM) envelope proteins exhibit immunosuppressive activity. However, in certain retroviral infections, additional viral proteins contribute to the immunosuppression in vivo. Within the TM envelope proteins, a highly conserved region\u2014designated the immunosuppressive (isu) domain\u2014was identified. Synthetic peptides corresponding to this domain suppress a wide range of in vitro immune responses, possibly by regulating Ras-Raf-MEK-MAPK and PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathways. They modulate cytokine release and alter gene expression in immune cells, mirroring the activity of the corresponding TM envelope protein. Mutations in the sequence abrogate the effect. Numerous TM envelope proteins have demonstrated immunosuppressive activity in vivo in a tumor rejection model, and mutations within the isu domain also abrogate this function. These studies have important implications for reproduction, particularly through the immunosuppressive syncytins in the placenta, for tumor development, where similar mechanisms may protect cancer cells from the host immune system, and for vaccine development and xenotransplantation. Notably, immunization with TM envelope proteins carrying mutations in the isu domain elicits stronger immune responses compared with the wild-type proteins. Finally, the potential of retroviral TM envelope proteins to protect xenotransplants from immune rejection will be discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18070740","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T09:34:11Z","timestamp":1783071251000},"page":"740","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Retrovirus-Induced Immunosuppression: Role of the Transmembrane Envelope Protein"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3244-6085","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joachim","family":"Denner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Free University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-011110-130254","article-title":"Pathogenic mechanisms of HIV disease","volume":"6","author":"Moir","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.69.2.1059-1070.1995","article-title":"Virus-induced immunosuppression: Immune system-mediated destruction of virus-infected dendritic cells results in generalized immune suppression","volume":"69","author":"Borrow","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"243","article-title":"Measles virus-induced immunosuppression","volume":"330","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1135(92)90031-N","article-title":"Virus-induced acquired immune suppression by cytotoxic T cell-mediated immunopathology","volume":"33","author":"Zinkernagel","year":"1992","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1080\/030794500750047126","article-title":"Circoviruses: Immunosuppressive threats to avian species: A review","volume":"29","author":"Todd","year":"2000","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Liao, S., Zhu, L., Xu, Z., and Zhou, Y. (2013). Molecular epidemiology of porcine cytomegalovirus (PCMV) in Sichuan province, China: 2010\u20132013. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0064648"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"633","article-title":"CD4+ T-cell depletion in HIV infection","volume":"39","author":"Okoye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.iy.08.040190.003013","article-title":"The simian immunodeficiency viruses","volume":"8","author":"Desrosiers","year":"1990","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S1090-0233(98)80008-7","article-title":"Feline immunodeficiency virus infection: An overview","volume":"155","author":"Hartmann","year":"1998","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schimmich, C., Vabret, A., Zientara, S., and Valle-Casuso, J.C. (2024). Equine infectious anemia virus cellular partners along the viral cycle. Viruses, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/v17010005"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2043","DOI":"10.3390\/v5082043","article-title":"Retroviral infections in sheep and goats: Small ruminant lentiviruses and host interaction","volume":"5","author":"Larruskain","year":"2013","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1126\/science.287.5453.607","article-title":"AIDS as a zoonosis: Scientific and public health implications","volume":"287","author":"Hahn","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1217550","article-title":"Natural SIV hosts: Showing AIDS the door","volume":"335","author":"Chahroudi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25140","article-title":"Sooty mangabey genome sequence provides insight into AIDS resistance in a natural SIV host","volume":"553","author":"Palesch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1960.tb20026.x","article-title":"The reticuloendothelial system and the neoplastic process","volume":"88","author":"Old","year":"1960","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Zschiesche, W. (1987). Immunosuppression by Oncogenic Retroviruses. Immune Modulation by Infectious Agents, VEB Gustav Fischer."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1","article-title":"Immunodepression by oncogenic viruses","volume":"14","author":"Dent","year":"1972","journal-title":"Prog. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00201958","article-title":"Immunopathology induced by the feline leukemia virus","volume":"5","author":"Hardy","year":"1982","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1135(88)90070-3","article-title":"Clinical and immunologic aspects of FeLV-induced immunosuppression","volume":"17","author":"Ogilvie","year":"1988","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-10-108","article-title":"Koala retroviruses: Characterization and impact on the life of koalas","volume":"10","author":"Denner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"2082","article-title":"Abrogation of resistance to feline oncornavirus disease by immunization with killed feline leukemia virus","volume":"37","author":"Olsen","year":"1977","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/59.5.1441","article-title":"Active and passive immunization of cats with inactivated feline oncornaviruses","volume":"59","author":"Schaller","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01309823","article-title":"Suppression of human lymphocyte mitogen response by retroviruses of type D. I. Action of highly purified intact and disrupted virus","volume":"86","author":"Denner","year":"1985","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09119.x","article-title":"Immunosuppression by retroviruses: Implications for xenotransplantation","volume":"862","author":"Denner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"41","article-title":"Non-specific effects of avian retrovirus co-incubation on lymphocyte function: Abrogation of antigen- and mitogen-induced proliferative responsiveness","volume":"38","author":"Israel","year":"1979","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.2307\/1589793","article-title":"Virus-mediated abrogation of chicken lymphocyte responsiveness to mitogenic stimulus","volume":"24","author":"Wainberg","year":"1980","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.131.4.2017","article-title":"The mechanism of retrovirus suppression of human T cell proliferation in vitro","volume":"131","author":"Copelan","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3396","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.134.5.3396","article-title":"Retrovirus-mediated immunosuppression. I. FeLV-UV and specific FeLV proteins alter T lymphocyte behavior by inducing hyporesponsiveness to lymphokines","volume":"134","author":"Orosz","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-64-4-957","article-title":"Effects of retrovirus protein on the feline one-way mixed leukocyte reaction","volume":"64","author":"Stiff","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1527","article-title":"Inhibition of erythroid colony-forming cells by a Mr 15,000 protein of feline leukemia virus","volume":"44","author":"Wellman","year":"1984","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.135.1.583","article-title":"Retrovirus-mediated immunosuppression. II. FeLV-UV alters in vitro murine T lymphocyte behavior by reversibly impairing lymphokine secretion","volume":"135","author":"Orosz","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-68-2-507","article-title":"Suppression of in vitro neutrophil function by feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and purified FeLV-p15E","volume":"68","author":"Lafrado","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01310506","article-title":"Inhibition of phorbol ester-induced neutrophil chemiluminescence by FeLV","volume":"111","author":"Dezzutti","year":"1990","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"4529","article-title":"Inhibition of lymphocyte transformation by disrupted murine oncornavirus","volume":"37","author":"Fowler","year":"1977","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01309824","article-title":"Suppression of human lymphocyte mitogen response by retroviruses of type D. II. Non-activity of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus versus activity of human cell line derived virus PMFV","volume":"86","author":"Denner","year":"1985","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"K19","article-title":"Suppression of human lymphocyte mitogen response by disrupted primate retroviruses of type C (baboon endogenous virus) and type D (PMFV)","volume":"39","author":"Denner","year":"1980","journal-title":"Acta Biol. Med. Ger."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1999.0149","article-title":"Porcine endogenous retroviruses inhibit human immune cell function: Risk for xenotransplantation?","volume":"268","author":"Tacke","year":"2000","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"Inhibition by human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV-I) of T-lymphocyte mitogenesis: Failure of exogenous T-cell growth factor to restore responsiveness to lectin","volume":"54","author":"Wainberg","year":"1985","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morozov, V.A., Dao Thi, V.L., and Denner, J. (2013). The transmembrane protein of the human endogenous retrovirus-K (HERV-K) modulates cytokine release and gene expression. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0070399"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5651","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02597-05","article-title":"Transspecies transmission of the endogenous koala retrovirus","volume":"80","author":"Fiebig","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-8749(89)90032-4","article-title":"Investigation of immunosuppressive properties of inactivated human immunodeficiency virus and possible neutralization of this effect by some patient sera","volume":"121","author":"Hofmann","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0090-1229(88)90004-9","article-title":"HIV-mediated immunodepression: In vitro inhibition of T-lymphocyte proliferative response by ultraviolet-inactivated virus","volume":"46","author":"Amadori","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7061","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.13.7061-7068.2004","article-title":"Noninfectious X4 but not R5 human immunodeficiency virus type 1 virions inhibit humoral immune responses in human lymphoid tissue ex vivo","volume":"78","author":"Fitzgerald","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"950","article-title":"Immunosuppressive properties of a virion polypeptide, a 15,000-dalton protein, from feline leukemia virus","volume":"39","author":"Mathes","year":"1979","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000000195","article-title":"The transmembrane proteins contribute to immunodeficiencies induced by HIV-1 and other retroviruses","volume":"28","author":"Denner","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/1040-8428(93)90009-S","article-title":"Immunosuppression by retroviral-envelope-related proteins, and their role in nonretroviral human disease","volume":"14","author":"Oostendorp","year":"1993","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2478(79)90002-6","article-title":"Retrovirus immunosuppression in vitro: Evidence for possible cytoskeletal involvement in lymphocyte surface membrane-related abnormalities","volume":"1","author":"Nichols","year":"1979","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"956","article-title":"Mobility of lymphocyte surface membrane concanavalin A receptors of normal and feline leukemia virus-infected viremic felines","volume":"39","author":"Dunlap","year":"1979","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1006\/prep.1999.1042","article-title":"Soluble expression in Escherichia coli of murine endogenous retroviral transmembrane envelope protein having immunosuppressive activity","volume":"16","author":"Kim","year":"1999","journal-title":"Protein Expr. Purif."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3250","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.63.8.3250-3256.1989","article-title":"Identification, using synthetic peptides, of the minimum amino acid sequence from the retroviral transmembrane protein p15E required for inhibition of lymphoproliferation and its similarity to gp21 of human T-lymphotropic virus types I and II","volume":"63","author":"Ruegg","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1988.49.02.227","article-title":"Suppression of feline bone marrow fibroblast colony-forming units by feline leukemia virus","volume":"49","author":"Wellman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Olsen, R.G. (1981). FeLV-related immunosuppression. Feline Leukemia, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-2478(97)02695-3","article-title":"HIV-1 recombinant gp41 induces IL-10 expression and production in peripheral blood monocytes but not in T-lymphocytes","volume":"55","author":"Koutsonikolis","year":"1997","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1006\/cimm.1995.1210","article-title":"Induction of IL-6 and IL-10 production by recombinant HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein 41 (gp41) in the THP-1 human monocytic cell line","volume":"165","author":"Takeshita","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200004140-00001","article-title":"HIV-1 envelope protein gp41 modulates expression of interleukin-10 and chemokine receptors on monocytes, astrocytes and neurones","volume":"14","author":"Speth","year":"2000","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1086\/515230","article-title":"Gp41 envelope protein of human immunodeficiency virus induces interleukin (IL)-10 in monocytes, but not in B, T, or NK cells, leading to reduced IL-2 and interferon-\u03b3 production","volume":"177","author":"Barcova","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fchle, M., Lehmann, M., Hoffmann, K., Stern, D., Kroniger, T., Luttmann, W., and Denner, J. (2017). Antigenic and immunosuppressive properties of a trimeric recombinant transmembrane envelope protein gp41 of HIV-1. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173454"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2012.08.004","article-title":"The endogenous retroviral envelope protein syncytin-1 inhibits LPS\/PHA-stimulated cytokine responses in human blood and is sorted into placental exosomes","volume":"33","author":"Tolosa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"443","article-title":"Inhibition of human lymphocyte mitogen and antigen response by a 15,000-dalton protein from feline leukemia virus","volume":"39","author":"Hebebrand","year":"1979","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bifulco, K., Longanesi-Cattani, I., Franco, P., Pavone, V., Mugione, P., Di Carluccio, G., Masucci, M.T., Arra, C., Pirozzi, G., and Stoppelli, M.P. (2012). Single amino acid substitutions in the chemotactic sequence of urokinase receptor modulate cell migration and invasion. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0044806"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867043364694","article-title":"Function and regulation of tumor necrosis factor receptor type 2","volume":"11","author":"Carpentier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2013.10.005","article-title":"Interleukin-1\u03b1","volume":"25","author":"Rider","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2731","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0000000000001814","article-title":"DHRS9 is a stable marker of human regulatory macrophages","volume":"101","author":"Riquelme","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vu, P.C., Dang, N.M., Nguyen, V.P., Jung, J., Shim, J., Hwang, J.H., Hoang, T.X., Yun, I.J., and Kim, J.Y. (2025). Pig regulatory macrophages as donor-derived immune modulators in xenotransplantation. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1718937"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2996136","article-title":"Inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation by a synthetic peptide homologous to retroviral envelope proteins","volume":"230","author":"Cianciolo","year":"1985","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0292021","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02920-21","article-title":"Structure of the Core Postfusion Porcine Endogenous Retrovirus Fusion Protein","volume":"13","author":"Dean","year":"2022","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0305763101","article-title":"The endogenous retroviral locus ERVWE1 is a bona fide gene involved in hominoid placental physiology","volume":"101","author":"Mallet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13013","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2132646100","article-title":"Genomewide screening for fusogenic human endogenous retrovirus envelopes identifies syncytin 2, a gene conserved on primate evolution","volume":"100","author":"Blaise","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E6642","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1702204114","article-title":"HEMO, an ancestral endogenous retroviral envelope protein shed in the blood of pregnant women and expressed in pluripotent stem cells and tumors","volume":"114","author":"Heidmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"634","article-title":"An intact retroviral gene conserved in spiny-rayed fishes for over 100 My","volume":"34","author":"Henzy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0098924","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.00989-24","article-title":"Conserved residues of the immunosuppressive domain of MLV are essential for regulating the fusion-critical SU-TM disulfide bond","volume":"98","author":"Hogan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01152-17","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01152-17","article-title":"Mutation of the putative immunosuppressive domain of the retroviral envelope glycoprotein compromises infectivity","volume":"91","author":"Eksmond","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-5793(92)80662-Z","article-title":"The envelope glycoprotein of Ebola virus contains an immunosuppressive-like domain similar to oncogenic retroviruses","volume":"305","author":"Volchkov","year":"1992","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-5793(93)81476-G","article-title":"The GP-protein of Marburg virus contains the region similar to the immunosuppressive domain of oncogenic retrovirus P15E proteins","volume":"323","author":"Bukreyev","year":"1993","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1901594","article-title":"Ebola","volume":"382","author":"Feldmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199604000-00013","article-title":"Similarity between Nef of primate lentiviruses and p15E of murine and feline leukaemia viruses","volume":"10","author":"Collette","year":"1996","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Denner, J., Eschricht, M., Lauck, M., Semaan, M., Schlaermann, P., Ryu, H., and Aky\u00fcz, L. (2013). Modulation of cytokine release and gene expression by the immunosuppressive domain of gp41 of HIV-1. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0055199"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.10269.1","article-title":"Antigenicity of peptides comprising the immunosuppressive domain of the retroviral envelope glycoprotein","volume":"1","author":"Jenkins","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-8749(91)90051-C","article-title":"A synthetic peptide with sequence identity to the transmembrane protein GP41 of HIV-1 inhibits distinct lymphocyte activation pathways dependent on protein kinase C and intracellular calcium influx","volume":"137","author":"Ruegg","year":"1991","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.124.6.2900","article-title":"Macrophage accumulation in mice is inhibited by low molecular weight products from murine leukemia viruses","volume":"124","author":"Cianciolo","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.138.3.889","article-title":"Inhibition of human natural killer cell activity by a synthetic peptide homologous to a conserved region in the retroviral protein, p15E","volume":"138","author":"Harris","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.145.2.456","article-title":"Inhibition of murine cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity by a synthetic retroviral envelope peptide and abrogation of this activity by IL","volume":"145","author":"Ogasawara","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2329","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.139.7.2329","article-title":"A synthetic peptide homologous to the envelope proteins of retroviruses inhibits monocyte-mediated killing by inactivating interleukin 1","volume":"139","author":"Kleinerman","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3517","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.136.10.3517","article-title":"Suppression of the respiratory burst of human monocytes by a synthetic peptide homologous to envelope proteins of human and animal retroviruses","volume":"136","author":"Harrell","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.84.1.237","article-title":"Suppressive effect on polyclonal B-cell activation of a synthetic peptide homologous to a transmembrane component of oncogenic retroviruses","volume":"84","author":"Mitani","year":"1987","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01665962","article-title":"Effects of CKS-17, a synthetic retroviral envelope peptide, on cell-mediated immunity in vivo: Immunosuppression, immunogenicity, and relation to immunosuppressive tumor products","volume":"30","author":"Nelson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01786882","article-title":"Inhibition of interleukin-2 production by tumor cell products and by CKS-17, a synthetic retroviral envelope protein","volume":"30","author":"Nelson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.141.2.614","article-title":"Human IFN-\u03b3 production is inhibited by a synthetic peptide homologous to retroviral envelope protein","volume":"141","author":"Ogasawara","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-8749(92)90157-K","article-title":"Suppression of human interferon-\u03b3 production by a 17 amino acid peptide homologous to the transmembrane envelope protein of retroviruses: Evidence for a primary role played by monocytes","volume":"141","author":"Haraguchi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1002\/jlb.52.4.469","article-title":"A synthetic peptide homologous to retroviral envelope protein down-regulates TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma mRNA expression","volume":"52","author":"Haraguchi","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2733","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.151.5.2733","article-title":"Transcriptional down-regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene expression by a synthetic peptide homologous to retroviral envelope protein","volume":"151","author":"Haraguchi","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3611","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.8.3611","article-title":"Differential modulation of Th1- and Th2-related cytokine mRNA expression by a synthetic peptide homologous to retroviral envelope protein","volume":"92","author":"Haraguchi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5568","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.12.5568","article-title":"Induction of intracellular cAMP by a synthetic retroviral envelope peptide: A possible mechanism of immunopathogenesis in retroviral infections","volume":"92","author":"Haraguchi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6771","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.166.11.6771","article-title":"A retroviral-derived immunosuppressive peptide activates mitogen-activated protein kinases","volume":"166","author":"Takahashi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1016\/S0196-9781(03)00137-2","article-title":"A retroviral-derived peptide phosphorylates protein kinase D\/protein kinase Cmu involving phospholipase C and protein kinase C","volume":"24","author":"Luangwedchakarn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2005.04.009","article-title":"The phosphorylation of phospholipase C-gamma1, Raf-1, MEK, and ERK1\/2 induced by a conserved retroviral peptide","volume":"26","author":"Fan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2566","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.145.8.2566","article-title":"Inhibition of protein kinase C by a peptide conjugate homologous to a domain of the retroviral protein p15E","volume":"145","author":"Gottlieb","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"185","article-title":"Endogenous retrovirus-encoded Syncytin-2 contributes to exosome-mediated immunosuppression of T cells","volume":"102","author":"Lokossou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1134\/S0026893313050026","article-title":"Immunosuppressive domains of retroviruses: Cell mechanisms of the effect on the human immune system","volume":"47","author":"Blinov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2478(88)90112-5","article-title":"Human retrovirus-related synthetic peptides inhibit T-lymphocyte proliferation","volume":"19","author":"Cianciolo","year":"1988","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3257","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.63.8.3257-3260.1989","article-title":"Inhibition of lymphoproliferation by a synthetic peptide with sequence identity to gp41 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1","volume":"63","author":"Ruegg","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3928","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.144.10.3928","article-title":"Inhibition of protein kinase C and anti-CD3-induced Ca2+ influx in Jurkat T cells by a synthetic peptide with sequence identity to HIV-1 gp41","volume":"144","author":"Ruegg","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2175","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.64.5.2175-2180.1990","article-title":"Inhibition of lymphoproliferation and protein kinase C by synthetic peptides with sequence identity to visna virus proteins","volume":"64","author":"Ruegg","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199408000-00005","article-title":"The immunosuppressive peptide of HIV-1: Functional domains and immune response in AIDS patients","volume":"8","author":"Denner","year":"1994","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199608150-00002","article-title":"The immunosuppressive peptide of HIV-1 inhibits T and B lymphocyte stimulation","volume":"12","author":"Denner","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-9-67","article-title":"Single mutations in the transmembrane envelope protein abrogate the immunosuppressive property of HIV-1","volume":"9","author":"Morozov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-015-8776-4","article-title":"The immunosuppressive domain of the transmembrane envelope protein gp41 of HIV-1 binds to human monocytes and B cells","volume":"64","author":"Kroniger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.144.2.480","article-title":"Infection with HIV is associated with elevated IL-6 levels and production","volume":"144","author":"Breen","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4059","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.145.12.4059","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of serum IL-6 and its correlation with increased levels of serum IL-2R in HIV-induced diseases","volume":"145","author":"Honda","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2006.22.757","article-title":"Elevations in IL-10, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma from the earliest point of HIV Type 1 infection","volume":"22","author":"Norris","year":"2006","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.1991.7.381","article-title":"Serum levels of IL-2, IL-1 alpha, TNF-alpha, and soluble receptor of IL-2 in HIV-1-infected patients","volume":"7","author":"Vuillier","year":"1991","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2014.0135","article-title":"Transcriptional Regulation of CXCL5 in HIV-1-Infected Macrophages and Its Functional Consequences on CNS Pathology","volume":"35","author":"Guha","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Interferon Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Denner, J., Schwinzer, R., Pokoyski, C., Kaufer, B.B., Dierkes, B., Ban, J., and Lovlesh, L. (2026). Further Evidence for the Immunosuppressive Activity of Transmembrane Envelope Protein p15E of Porcine Endogenous Retrovirus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27021094"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.1990.10.621","article-title":"Identification of a decapeptide region of human interferon-alpha with antiproliferative activity and homology to an immunosuppressive sequence of the retroviral transmembrane protein P15E","volume":"10","author":"Ruegg","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Interferon Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3581","article-title":"Regulation of type I interferon responses","volume":"14","author":"Ivashkiv","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1385\/IR:22:1:61","article-title":"HIV-1 gp41 and type I interferon: Sequence homology and biological as well as clinical implications","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/S0171-2985(98)80043-0","article-title":"A common immunological epitope existing between HIV-1 gp41 and human interferon-alpha and -beta","volume":"198","author":"Chen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/S0753-3322(99)80065-1","article-title":"Anti-IFN alpha immunization raises the IFN alpha-neutralizing capacity of serum--an adjuvant to antiretroviral tritherapy","volume":"53","author":"Zagury","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"6227","article-title":"Specific residues within an amino-terminal domain of 35 residues of interferon alpha are responsible for recognition of the human interferon alpha cell receptor and for triggering biological effects","volume":"262","author":"Shafferman","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-291X(89)91677-X","article-title":"The biological activity of interferon alpha is influenced by two distinct regions in the protein","volume":"164","author":"Bosveld","year":"1989","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-2836(85)90401-2","article-title":"Structural relationship of human interferon \u03b1 genes","volume":"185","author":"Henco","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"510","article-title":"Family of human interferon \u03b1-like sequences","volume":"5","author":"Feinstein","year":"1985","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4131","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00336a048","article-title":"Immunochemical mapping of alpha-2 interferon","volume":"24","author":"Lydon","year":"1985","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R13","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.115R013","article-title":"Interferon sequence homology and receptor binding activity of ovine trophoblast antiluteolytic protein","volume":"115","author":"Stewart","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.1991.11.341","article-title":"The porcine family of interferon-omega: Cloning, structural analysis, and functional studies of five related genes","volume":"11","author":"Mege","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Interferon Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-4781(91)90004-6","article-title":"Human interferon omega 1: Isolation of the gene, expression in Chinese hamster ovary cells and characterization of the recombinant protein","volume":"1089","author":"Adolf","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1038\/330377a0","article-title":"Interferon-like sequence of ovine trophoblast protein secreted by embryonic trophectoderm","volume":"330","author":"Imakawa","year":"1987","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4739","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/13.13.4739","article-title":"A novel class of human type I interferons","volume":"13","author":"Hauptmann","year":"1985","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wittling, M.C., Cahalan, S.R., Levenson, E.A., and Rabin, R.L. (2021). Shared and unique features of human interferon-\u03b2 and interferon-\u03b1 subtypes. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.605673"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14920","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.25.14920","article-title":"Tumor cells expressing a retroviral envelope escape immune rejection in vivo","volume":"95","author":"Mangeney","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-82-7-1597","article-title":"The envelope of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus has immunosuppressive properties","volume":"82","author":"Blaise","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2515","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-82-10-2515","article-title":"The full-length envelope of an HERV-H retrovirus has immunosuppressive properties","volume":"82","author":"Mangeney","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20534","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0707873105","article-title":"Placental syncytins: Genetic disjunction between the fusogenic and immunosuppressive activity of retroviral envelope proteins","volume":"104","author":"Mangeney","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02234-13","article-title":"A targeted mutation within the feline leukemia virus (FeLV) envelope protein immunosuppressive domain to improve a canarypox virus-vectored FeLV vaccine","volume":"88","author":"Mangeney","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3782","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0913122107","article-title":"Retroviral infection in vivo requires an immune escape virulence factor encrypted in the envelope protein of oncoretroviruses","volume":"107","author":"Renard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"Ivanusic, D., and Denner, J. (2023). Sensitive detection of lipopolysaccharides by monitoring of interleukin-10 secretion from human PBMCs. MicroPubl. Biol., 2023."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2362.2001.00895.x","article-title":"Interactions between major histocompatibility complex class II surface expression and HIV: Implications for pathogenesis","volume":"31","author":"Kamp","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.1992.5.201","article-title":"Altered macrophage antigen-presenting cell function following Friend leukemia virus infection","volume":"5","author":"Jones","year":"1992","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199006000-00009","article-title":"Characterization of a putative cellular receptor for HIV-1 transmembrane glycoprotein using synthetic peptides","volume":"4","author":"Qureshi","year":"1990","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02559890","article-title":"The immunosuppressive (ISU-) peptide of HIV-1: Binding proteins on lymphocytes detected by different methods","volume":"121","author":"Denner","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199206000-00002","article-title":"HIV-1 gp41 contains two sites for interaction with several proteins on the helper T-lymphoid cell line, H9","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"1992","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199304000-00006","article-title":"Cell surface proteins binding to recombinant soluble HIV-1 and HIV-2 transmembrane proteins","volume":"7","author":"Ebenbichler","year":"1993","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-2478(98)00008-X","article-title":"Antigenic characterization of gp41-binding proteins","volume":"62","author":"Chen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2478(91)90121-P","article-title":"Specific association of retroviral envelope protein, p15E, with human cell surfaces","volume":"28","author":"Kizaki","year":"1991","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16291","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)82468-1","article-title":"A peptide inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus infection binds to novel human cell surface polypeptides","volume":"268","author":"Henderson","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0171-2985(11)80216-0","article-title":"HIV-1 gp41 binding to human peripheral blood mononuclear cells occurs preferentially to B Lymphocytes and monocytes","volume":"188","author":"Chen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_147","first-page":"195","article-title":"Immunosuppressive peptide inhibits lymphocyte proliferation and HIV replication","volume":"11","author":"Denner","year":"1995","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.149.3.1010","article-title":"An immunosuppressive retrovirus-derived hexapeptide interferes with intracellular signaling in monocytes and granulocytes through N-formylpeptide receptors","volume":"149","author":"Oostendorp","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.28","article-title":"Immunoregulatory effects of HIV-1 Nef protein","volume":"35","author":"Quaranta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biofactors"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3091","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.142.9.3091","article-title":"HIV-1 GP120-mediated immune suppression and lymphocyte destruction in the absence of viral infection","volume":"142","author":"Weinhold","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2746","article-title":"The HIV-1 envelope protein gp120 impairs B cell proliferation by inducing TGF-beta1 production and FcRL4 expression","volume":"14","author":"Jelicic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s12977-017-0336-7","article-title":"Induction of complex immune responses and strong protection against retrovirus challenge by adenovirus-based immunization depends on the order of vaccine delivery","volume":"14","author":"Wensing","year":"2017","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Podschwadt, P., Malyshkina, A., Windmann, S., Papadamakis, A., Kerkmann, L., Lapuente, D., Tenbusch, M., Lu, M., Schindler, M., and Lang, K.S. (2022). Immune suppression of vaccine-induced CD8+ T-cell responses by gamma retrovirus envelope is mediated by interleukin-10-producing CD4+ T cells. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.934399"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2515","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.80.5.2515-2528.2006","article-title":"Nature of nonfunctional envelope proteins on the surface of human immunodeficiency virus type 1","volume":"80","author":"Moore","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12823","article-title":"T-cell exhaustion in HIV infection","volume":"292","author":"Fenwick","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI60612","article-title":"PD-1 blockade during chronic SIV infection reduces hyperimmune activation and microbial translocation in rhesus macaques","volume":"122","author":"Velu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-012-0118-8","article-title":"HIV and inflammation: Mechanisms and consequences","volume":"9","author":"Hunt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2012.09.001","article-title":"Microbial translocation, immune activation, and HIV disease","volume":"21","author":"Klatt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4629","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI126714","article-title":"HIV-1 in lymph nodes is maintained by cellular proliferation during antiretroviral therapy","volume":"129","author":"McManus","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E3659","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1617961114","article-title":"Single-cell analysis of HIV-1 transcriptional activity reveals expression of proviruses in expanded clones during ART","volume":"114","author":"Wiegand","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14807","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0506857102","article-title":"Persistence of HIV-1 structural proteins and glycoproteins in lymph nodes of patients under highly active antiretroviral therapy","volume":"102","author":"Popovic","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shimode, S. (2023). Acquisition and exaptation of endogenous retroviruses in mammalian placenta. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13101482"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20120507","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2012.0507","article-title":"Paleovirology of \u2018syncytins\u2019, retroviral env genes exapted for a role in placentation","volume":"368","author":"Lavialle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.12474","article-title":"Expression and function of endogenous retroviruses in the placenta","volume":"124","author":"Denner","year":"2016","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13315","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1719189114","article-title":"Function of a retroviral envelope protein in the placenta of a viviparous lizard","volume":"114","author":"Denner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1159\/000084964","article-title":"Human endogenous retroviruses: From infectious elements to human genes","volume":"110","author":"Heidmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_167","first-page":"1","article-title":"Human endogenous retrovirus K (HERV-K) is expressed in villous and extravillous cytotrophoblast cells of the human placenta","volume":"91","author":"Germeyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.159.3.964","article-title":"Retroviral P15E-related antigen in malignant cells","volume":"159","author":"Cianciolo","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.158.3.885","article-title":"Murine malignant cells synthesize a 19,000-dalton protein that is physicochemically and antigenically related to the immunosuppressive retroviral protein, P15E","volume":"158","author":"Cianciolo","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.1993.395","article-title":"Expression of a suppressive p15E-related epitope in colorectal and gastric cancers","volume":"68","author":"Foulds","year":"1993","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_171","first-page":"178","article-title":"Comparison of retroviral p15E-related factors and interferon alpha in head and neck cancer","volume":"38","author":"Simons","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1177\/019459988709600304","article-title":"Immunohistochemical detection of retroviral-P15E-related material in carcinomas of the head and neck","volume":"96","author":"Tan","year":"1987","journal-title":"Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.1992.tb06884.x","article-title":"Distribution of retroviral p15E-related proteins in neoplastic and non-neoplastic human tissues, and their role in the regulation of the immune response","volume":"89","author":"Scheeren","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1999.9750","article-title":"Isolation of HERV-H env open reading frame","volume":"258","author":"Lindeskog","year":"1999","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2588","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-04-4231","article-title":"Endogenous retrovirus expression is required for murine melanoma tumor growth in vivo","volume":"65","author":"Mangeney","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1869","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.22066","article-title":"Mobility and integration sites of a murine C57BL\/6 melanoma endogenous retrovirus involved in tumor progression in vivo","volume":"119","author":"Pothlichet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.21935","article-title":"A recombinant endogenous retrovirus amplified in a mouse neuroblastoma is involved in tumor growth in vivo","volume":"119","author":"Pothlichet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-021-00385-6","article-title":"A recombinant measles virus vaccine strongly reduces SHIV viremia and virus reservoir establishment in macaques","volume":"6","author":"Nzounza","year":"2021","journal-title":"npj Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_179","first-page":"e70067","article-title":"Expression of a retroviral immunosuppressive protein on the xenotransplant\u2014A way to reduce rejection?","volume":"32","author":"Denner","year":"2025","journal-title":"Xenotransplantation"},{"key":"ref_180","unstructured":"Denner, J. (2026, January 11\u201313). The immunosuppressive properties of the PERV transmembrane protein p15E raise the question of whether it could be exploited to reduce xenotransplant rejection. Proceedings of the Viruses 2026\u2013New Horizons in Virology, Barcelona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.064857-0","article-title":"Lack of antibody response to PERV transmembrane protein in pigs","volume":"95","author":"Keller","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvaf109","article-title":"Gene therapy in cardiac and vascular diseases: A review of approaches to treat genetic and common cardiovascular diseases with novel gene-based therapeutics","volume":"121","author":"Musolino","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabc8226","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abc8226","article-title":"Adeno-associated virus gene therapy prevents progression of kidney disease in genetic models of nephrotic syndrome","volume":"15","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Artemyev, V., Paremskaia, A.I., Dzhioeva, A.A., Mishina, D., Bogdanov, V., Krupinova, J., Mazloum, A., Feoktistova, S.G., Mityaeva, O.N., and Volchkov, P.Y. (2025). Engineering Liver-Specific Promoters: A Comprehensive Review of Design, Mechanisms, and Clinical Applications in Gene Therapy. Cells, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15010014"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12469","DOI":"10.1111\/xen.12469","article-title":"Will donor-derived neoplasia be problematic after clinical pig organ or cell xenotransplantation?","volume":"26","author":"Jagdale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Xenotransplantation"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0000000000000327","article-title":"Adeno-associated viral vector 2.9 thymosin ss4 application attenuates rejection after heart transplantation: Results of a preclinical study in the pig","volume":"98","author":"Postrach","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3466","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.66.6.3466-3475.1992","article-title":"Mutations within the env gene of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus: Effects on protein transport and SU-TM association","volume":"66","author":"Brody","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Virol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/7\/740\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T09:59:36Z","timestamp":1783072776000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/7\/740"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"references-count":187,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v18070740"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v18070740","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]}}}