{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:56:53Z","timestamp":1785430613572,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783900800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01na82s61","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009168","name":"Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009168","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0599wfz09","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Global Partnership for Animal and Zoonotic Disease Surveillance"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) represents one of the most severe transboundary animal diseases globally. Although considered endemic in Ghana, recent data on circulating serotypes are limited. This study investigated and characterized FMD outbreaks occurring between July and December 2024, assessed the occurrence of the infection in seemingly healthy cattle imports, and explored alternative methods to enhance early diagnosis in livestock; using probang Sera, epithelial tissue and oral mucosal swabs were obtained from cattle exhibiting signs suggestive of FMD from farms, livestock markets and a slaughter facility. This was followed by a cross-sectional survey at two major points of entry (POE) to Ghana to obtain oropharyngeal samples using probang from healthy cattle to assess the possible role of imported cattle in the outbreaks in the northern and southern regions of the country. Samples were analysed for FMD virus (FMDV) and non-structural protein (NSP) antibodies to assess infection and exposure from the outbreak foci and POE. Positive samples were sequenced to characterize the virus serotypes. Outbreaks were reported in 38 kraals, three livestock markets, and one slaughter facility across 14 districts in nine regions. Morbidity rates ranged from 8% to 100% (median = 50%), with fatalities occurring in three kraals. Of the 247 samples from outbreak locations, FMD virus was detected in 49.4% (122\/247). A majority of cattle (66.03%, 140\/212) tested seropositive for FMD NSP antibodies. From healthy cattle at POE, 250 oropharyngeal (probang) samples were collected, with 62.4% testing positive, distributed between the north and south. Only 1.6% of the samples had FMDV RNA detected using PCR. Phylogenetic analysis identified serotypes O, A, and SAT2. These findings confirm the co-circulation of multiple FMDV serotypes in Ghana and highlight the necessity for enhanced molecular surveillance and coordinated cross-border control measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18070769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T02:34:44Z","timestamp":1783996484000},"page":"769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Molecular Epidemiology and Co-Circulation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Serotypes in Ghana, 2024"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7092-7237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theophilus","family":"Odoom","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Accra Veterinary Laboratory, Veterinary Service Directorate, Accra P.O. Box M161, Ghana"},{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ghana, Accra P.O. Box LG 25, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0829-5774","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sherry Ama Mawuko","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ghana, Accra P.O. Box LG 25, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2125-6382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William","family":"Tasiame","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6126-6994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard Kwamena","family":"Abbiw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra P.O. Box LG 25, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7398-1732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kingsley","family":"Kwabena Amoako","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Accra Veterinary Laboratory, Veterinary Service Directorate, Accra P.O. Box M161, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benita","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control, Veterinary Service Directorate, Accra P.O. Box 97, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph K.","family":"Abuh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Service Directorate, Accra P.O. Box M161, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kofi","family":"Sarpong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Accra Veterinary Laboratory, Veterinary Service Directorate, Accra P.O. Box M161, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fenteng","family":"Danso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Service Directorate, Accra P.O. Box M161, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Allegye-Cudjoe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Service Directorate, Accra P.O. Box M161, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lizhe","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (FADDL), National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility, Manhattan, KS 66505, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0851-4244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amy","family":"Berninger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (FADDL), National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility, Manhattan, KS 66505, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0332-6159","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Corrie","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LifeStock International, Athens, GA 30606, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0421-7081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bonto","family":"Faburay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (FADDL), National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility, Manhattan, KS 66505, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gizaw, D., Beyene, G., Ashenafi, H., Legesse, M., and Kassa, T. (2025). Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreaks (2011\u20132022) in Cattle Export-Sourcing Areas of Southeastern Ethiopia. BMC Vet. Res., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-025-04772-2"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14693","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-32693-8","article-title":"Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Pandemic Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses: The Impact of Recombination within the Emerging O\/ME-SA\/Ind-2001 Lineage","volume":"8","author":"Wadsworth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12642","article-title":"Outbreak Investigations and Molecular Characterization of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses Circulating in South-West Niger","volume":"65","author":"Kouato","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"119","article-title":"Challenges and Prospects for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease: An African Perspective","volume":"119","author":"Rweyemamu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Res. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.39.3.3182","article-title":"Risk of Foot and Mouth Disease Spread through Cattle Movements in Uganda","volume":"39","author":"Mugezi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70124","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.70124","article-title":"The Influence of Farm Connectedness on Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Livestock","volume":"15","author":"Contina","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12248","article-title":"Foot-and-Mouth Disease Transmission in Africa: Implications for Control, a Review","volume":"63","author":"Tekleghiorghis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12507","article-title":"Foot-and-Mouth Disease Impact on Smallholders\u2014What Do We Know, What Don\u2019t We Know and How Can We Find Out More?","volume":"64","author":"McLaws","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6344","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00388-16","article-title":"The Foot-and-Mouth Disease Carrier State Divergence in Cattle","volume":"90","author":"Stenfeldt","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-019-01864-8","article-title":"Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Southern Ghana: Occurrence and Molecular Characterization of Circulating Viruses","volume":"51","author":"Teye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iriarte, M.V., Gonz\u00e1les, J.L., de Freitas Costa, E., Gil, A.D., and de Jong, M.C.M. (2023). Main Factors Associated with Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Infection during the 2001 FMD Epidemic in Uruguay. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1070188"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2002.220.1636","article-title":"Use of a Portable Real-Time Reverse Transcriptasepolymerase Chain Reaction Assay for Rapid Detection of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus","volume":"220","author":"Callahan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5017","DOI":"10.21769\/BioProtoc.5017","article-title":"Direct RNA Sequencing of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Genome Using a Flongle on MinION","volume":"14","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bio-protocol"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bracht, A.J., O\u2019Hearn, E.S., Fabian, A.W., Barrette, R.W., and Sayed, A. (2016). Real-Time Reverse Transcription PCR Assay for Detection of Senecavirus A in Swine Vesicular Diagnostic Specimens. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0146211"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2013.01.009","article-title":"Development of a Universal RT-PCR for Amplifying and Sequencing the Leader and Capsid-Coding Region of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus","volume":"189","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"FAO (2023). Fourth GF-TADs West Africa Roadmap Meeting for Foot-and-Mouth Disease\u2014Short Report of the Virtual Meeting, FAO."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gifford-Gonzalez, D., and Hanotte, O. (2013). Domesticating Animals in Africa, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199569885.013.0034"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.160","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Q Fever in Cattle, Sheep and Goats in the Volta Region of Ghana","volume":"5","author":"Johnson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1865-1682.2011.01304.x","article-title":"Clinical Manifestations of Foot-and-Mouth Disease During the 2010\/2011 Epidemic in the Republic of Korea","volume":"59","author":"Yoon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-015-0173-4","article-title":"Impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease on Mastitis and Culling on a Large-Scale Dairy Farm in Kenya","volume":"46","author":"Lyons","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kappes, A., Tozooneyi, T., Shakil, G., Railey, A.F., McIntyre, K.M., Mayberry, D.E., Rushton, J., Pendell, D.L., and Marsh, T.L. (2023). Livestock Health and Disease Economics: A Scoping Review of Selected Literature. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1168649"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Gizaw, D. (2018). Foot-and-Mouth Disease Situation Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Monthly Report, FAO. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/eufmd\/FMD_reports_GMR\/February2018.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"157","article-title":"Prevalence of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus, SAT1 and SAT2 Serotypes Antibodies in Nigerian Cattle","volume":"4","author":"Chukwuedo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anim. Prod. Res. Adv."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12629","article-title":"Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Serotype SAT1 in Cattle, Nigeria","volume":"64","author":"Ehizibolo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/7\/769\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T04:16:07Z","timestamp":1784088967000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/18\/7\/769"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v18070769"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v18070769","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]}}}