{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T11:01:48Z","timestamp":1789988508733,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: This review aims to describe the macroscopic methods used to detect poliomyelitis in human skeletal remains and to highlight the limitations of current diagnostic frameworks. Materials: The reviewed materials consist of published paleopathological literature and case studies analyzing human skeletal remains for evidence of the disease. Methods: We evaluated existing studies that focus on the macroscopic analysis of secondary skeletal alterations caused by paralysis, such as unilateral limb atrophy, bone shortening, pronounced asymmetry, and compensatory hypertrophy. Results: Current diagnostic frameworks rely almost exclusively on macroscopic markers; notably, none of the reviewed studies utilized molecular or genetic techniques. Consequently, definitively confirmed cases of ancient poliomyelitis remain exceptionally rare. Conclusions: The paleopathological diagnosis of poliomyelitis currently suffers from a substantial methodological gap due to an overreliance on morphological assessments. Transcending these traditional techniques is essential to definitively confirm ancient cases. Significance: Analyzing skeletal evidence provides crucial insights into how this debilitating viral infection afflicted human populations in antiquity. It also underscores the importance of rigorous differential diagnosis to distinguish poliomyelitis from other paralytic etiologies, such as cerebral palsy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v18091047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T10:25:43Z","timestamp":1789986343000},"page":"1047","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Diagnostic Methods Used in Detecting Poliomyelitis in Paleopathological Research\u2014A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4081-6891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"G\u0105siorowska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1222-1018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej Mateusz","family":"Hanypsiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Jendrzejaczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5886-4671","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artur","family":"Ams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-2084-5863","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan Rafa\u0142","family":"Falana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karol","family":"Zag\u00f3rski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1236-2802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Rekiel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kinga","family":"Brawa\u0144ska-Ma\u015bluch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolic Diseases, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 2a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pola","family":"Nowacka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wiktoria","family":"\u017babi\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4399-0309","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Mikita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vertex Students\u2019 Scientific Club, Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6995-123X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr Pawe\u0142","family":"Chmielewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9018-5357","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Data","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. Chalubinskiego 6a, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1575-3123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Mozdziak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA"},{"name":"Physiology Graduate Faculty, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27613, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bartosz","family":"Kempisty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Morphology and Embryology, Wroclaw Medical University, Ul. 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